ALL ABOUT HINDUISM
By
A DIVINE LIFE SOCIETY PUBLICATION
First Edition: 1947
Second Edition: 1961
Third Edition: 1977
Fourth Edition: 1988
Fifth Edition: 1993
Sixth Edition: 1997
(Copies 5,000)
World Wide Web (WWW) Edition : 1999
WWW site: http://www.dlshq.org/
This WWW reprint is for free distribution
? The Divine Life Trust Society
ISBN 81-7052-047-9
Published By
THE DIVINE LIFE SOCIETY
P.O. Shivanandanagar—249 192
Distt. Tehri-Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh,
Himalayas, India.
DEDICATED TO
ALL THOSE
WHO LOVE HINDUISM
AND ITS SUBLIME PHILOSOPHY
AND PRACTISE ITS TEACHINGS
CONTENTS
PUBLISHERS’ NOTE
Hinduism is veritably the fountain-head of all religions. It contains within itself
the seeds of all religions. It includes all religions and excludes none.
It is but natural that people all over the world should show increasing interest in a
religion with so universal an appeal.
“ALL ABOUT HINDUISM” is intended to meet the needs of those who want to be
introduced to the various facets of the crystal that is Hinduism. The book, which was
first published in 1947, has now been rearranged in a more convenient form, with useful
additions here and there, and is now released in its fifth edition.
We do hope that all serious students of Hindu Religion and Philosophy will find the
book useful and interesting.
—THE DIVINE LIFE SOCIETY.
I
O Adorable Lord of Mercy and Love!
Salutations and prostrations unto Thee.
Thou art Existence-Consciousness-Bliss Absolute.
Thou art Omnipresent, Omnipotent and Omniscient.
Thou art the Indweller of all beings.
Grant us an understanding heart,
Equal vision, balanced mind,
Faith, devotion and wisdom.
Grant us inner spiritual strength
To resist temptations and to control the mind.
Free us from egoism, lust, greed, hatred, anger and jealousy.
Fill our hearts with divine virtues.
Let us behold Thee in till these names and forms.
Let us serve Thee in all these names and forms.
Let us ever remember Thee.
Let us ever sing Thy glories.
Let Thy Name be ever on our lips.
Let us abide in Thee for ever and ever.
—Swami Sivananda
II
O Thou Invisible One! O Adorable One! O Supreme! Thou permeatest and penetratest this
vast universe from the unlimited space down to the tiny blade of grass at my feet. Thou
art the basis for all these names and forms. Thou art the apple of my eye, the Prema of my
heart, the very Life of my life, the very Soul of my soul, the Illuminator of my intellect
and senses, the sweet Anahata music of my heart, and the substance of my physical, mental
and causal frames.
I recognise Thee alone as the mighty Ruler of this universe and the Inner Controller
(Antaryamin) of my three bodies. I prostrate again and again before Thee, my Lord! Thou
art my sole refuge! I trust Thee alone, O ocean of mercy and love! Elevate, enlighten,
guide and protect me. Remove obstacles from my spiritual path. Lift the veil of ignorance.
O Thou Jagadguru! I cannot bear any longer, even for a second, the miseries of this body,
this life and this Samsara. Give Darsana quickly. O Prabho! I am pining. I am melting.
Listen, listen to my fervent, Antarika prayer. Do not be cruel, my Lord. Thou art
Dinabandhu. Thou art Adhama-Uddharaka. Thou art Patita-Pavana (Purifier of the fallen).
Om Santi Santi Santih!
III
Sarvesham Svasti Bhavatu
Sarvesham Santir Bhavatu
Sarvesham Purnam Bhavatu
Sarvesham Mangalam Bhavatu
May auspiciousness be unto all;
May peace be unto all;
May fullness be unto all;
May prosperity be unto all.
Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinah
Sarve Santu Niramayah
Sarve Bhadrani Pasyantu
Ma Kaschid-Duhkha-Bhag-Bhavet
May all be happy;
May all be free from disabilities;
May all behold what is auspicious;
May none suffer from sorrow.
Asato Ma Sadgamaya
Tamaso Ma Jyotir-Gamaya
Mrityor-Ma Amritam Gamaya
Om Santi Santi Santih!
Lead me from the unreal to the Real;
Lead me from darkness to the Light;
Lead me from mortality to Immortality.
Om Peace! Peace! Peace!
CHAPTER 1
HINDU RELIGION
Silent adorations to Satchidananda Para-Brahman, Who is the silent Witness
of all minds, Who is the Indweller in all beings, Who has projected this world for His own
Lila or sport, Who is the support for this world, body and mind and all movements,
and Who is the foundation for all societies and their activities.
Purpose Of Religion
The word Religion comes from the Latin word religio which consists of two
words, viz., re (back) and ligare (to bring or bind). That which binds the
soul back to God is religion. Religion shows the way for the attainment of
God-realisation.
Religion satisfies the deep inward craving in man who is not always content with
leading merely an animal existence and wants spiritual consolation, solace and peace. Man
cannot live by bread alone. A time comes in the life of many of us when mere worldly
prosperity does not satisfy us and we hanker after something more. In the case of many
more, trials and tribulations of life turn their attention to spiritual solace.
Distinguishing Features Of Hinduism
A Revealed Religion
Hinduism is the religion of the Hindus, a name given to the Universal Religion which
hailed supreme in India. It is the oldest of all living religions. This is not founded by
any prophet. Buddhism, Christianity and Mohammedanism owe their origin to the prophets.
Their dates are fixed. But no such date can be fixed for Hinduism. Hinduism is not born of
the teachings of particular prophets. It is not based on a set of dogmas preached by a
particular set of teachers. It is free from religious fanaticism.
Hinduism is also known by the names Sanatana-Dharma and Vaidika-Dharma.
Sanatana-Dharma means eternal religion. Hinduism is as old as the world itself.
Hinduism is the mother of all religions. Hindu scriptures are the oldest in the world,
Sanatana-Dharma is so called, not only because it is eternal, but also because it is
protected by God and because it can make us eternal.
Vaidika-Dharma means the religion of the Vedas. The Vedas are the foundational
scriptures of Hinduism. The ancient Rishis and sages of India have expressed their
intuitive spiritual experiences (Aparoksha-Anubhuti) in the Upanishads. These
experiences are direct and infallible. Hinduism regards the spiritual experiences of the
Rishis of yore as its authority. The priceless truths that have been discovered by the
Hindu Rishis and sages through millennia constitute the glory of Hinduism. Therefore,
Hinduism is a revealed religion.
A Religion Of Freedom
Hinduism, unlike other religions, does not dogmatically assert that the final
emancipation is possible only through its means and not through any other. It is only a
means to an end and all means which will ultimately lead to the end are equally approved.
Hinduism allows absolute freedom to the rational mind of man. Hinduism never demands
any undue restraint upon the freedom of human reason, the freedom of thought, feeling and
will of man. It allows the widest freedom in matters of faith and worship. Hinduism is a
religion of freedom. It allows absolute freedom to the human reason and heart with regard
to questions such as nature of God, soul, creation, form of worship and the goal of life.
Hinduism does not lie in the acceptance of any particular doctrine, nor in the observance
of some particular rituals or form of worship. It does not force anybody to accept
particular dogmas or forms of worship. It allows everybody to reflect, investigate,
enquire and cogitate. Hence, all sorts of religious faiths, various forms of worship or
Sadhana, and diverse kinds of rituals and customs, have found their honourable places side
by side within Hinduism and are cultured and developed in harmonious relationship with one
another.
Hinduism does not condemn those who deny God as the creator and ruler of the world, who
do not accept the existence of an eternal soul and the state of Moksha or state of
liberation. Hinduism does not render the upholders of such views unfit to be recognised as
pious and honourable members of the Hindu religious society.
The religious hospitality of Hinduism is proverbial. Hinduism is extremely catholic and
liberal. This is the fundamental feature of Hinduism. Hinduism pays respects to all
religions. It does not revile any other religion. It accepts and honours
truth—wherever it may come from and whatever garb it may put on.
There are considerable numbers of the followers of other religions in India. And yet,
the Hindus live in perfect harmony, peace and friendship with all of them. Their tolerance
and fellow-feeling towards the followers of other religions is remarkable.
Despite all the differences of metaphysical doctrines, modes of religious discipline
and forms of ritualistic practices and social habits prevalent in the Hindu society, there
is an essential uniformity in the conception of religion and in the outlook on life and
the world, among all sections of Hindus.
The Glory Of Vedanta And Yoga
Vedanta, or the philosophy of the Upanishads, is lofty, sublime and unique. The
Western philosophers have paid their tribute to the ancient seers of the Upanishads. They
have been amazed at the lofty heights scaled by them. Schopenhauer studied the Upanishads
and meditated on the thoughts of the Upanishads just before going to bed. He said:
“The Upanishads are the solace of my life and they will be solace to me after my
death also.”
The Raja-Yoga system of Hinduism is also splendid and unique. The lessons are immensely
practical and highly instructive. No system of physical exercise on the surface of the
earth can compete with Hatha-Yoga. Kundalini-Yoga is wonderful. Hence the Americans and
Europeans are in search of Hindu Sannyasins and Yogins. They visit the Himalayas
frequently in quest of Yoga teachers. Some are living under Hindu Yogins as disciples and
are practising Yoga. Many Europeans and Americans are even now Hindus by faith and
practice, though they are born Christians. They practise Raja-Yoga and Vedanta.
Emphasis On Practice
Hinduism provides spiritual food and Yoga Sadhana for all sorts of people to suit
their temperaments, capacities, tastes, stages of spiritual development and conditions of
life. It prescribes Yoga Sadhana even for a scavenger or a cobbler to attain
God-realisation, while doing his ordinary avocation in the world. Hindu Yoga and Vedanta
teachers lay great stress on self-restraint, Tapas, renunciation and practical Sadhana
which is best calculated to control the mind and the senses and unfold the divinity or
attain Self-realisation. Hinduism is not a religion of mere theories. It is eminently
practical. In no religion you will find such a variety of practical Yoga practised and
such sublime unique philosophy expounded. That is the reason why India is the only
glorious land of sages, Rishis, Yogins and saints.
Religion is practical aspect of philosophy. Philosophy is rational aspect of religion.
The philosophy of Hinduism is not arm-chair philosophy. It is not meant for intellectual
curiosity and vain discussion. Hindu philosophy is a way of life. The philosopher of
Hinduism seriously reflects after hearing the Srutis, does Atma-Vichara, constantly
meditates, and then attains Self-realisation or Atma-Sakshatkara. Moksha is his goal. He
attempts to attain Jivanmukti now and here.
Religion is spiritualisation of human life for a Hindu. Religious culture is really the
culture of freedom for him. Religion governs all the departments of Hindu life. He must
realise the freedom of the soul in every department of life. Religion affords the greatest
scope for him for the culture of true freedom. Religion is the only way to him for the
realisation of perfect freedom in life.
It is in India alone that every man knows something of philosophy. The cowherd who
tends the cattle, the peasant who ploughs the fields, the boat-man who pulls at his oar,
sing songs replete with philosophical truths. Even the barber repeats OM NAMAH SIVAYA,
SIVOHAM before he takes up the razor. The Paramahamsa Sannyasins, the itinerant monks of
Hinduism, have disseminated the highest of Vedanta from door to door. In exchange for a
handful of rice, they have distributed from door to door, through religious songs, the
priceless gems of Hindu religion and philosophy.
Who Is A Hindu
In a meeting of the Sanatana Dharma Sabha, Lokamanya Tilak said: “A Hindu is
he who believes that the Vedas contain self-evident and axiomatic truths.”
The Hindu Maha Sabha has given another definition: “A Hindu is one who believes in
a religion which has originated in India.”
“Those who burn the dead are Hindus.” This is another definition given by
some.
“He who protects the cows and the Brahmins is a Hindu.” This is another
definition given by some.
Some define: “A Hindu is one who regards India as his motherland and the most
sacred spot on earth.”
Some others define: “He who calls and considers himself a Hindu is a Hindu.”
Some define: “He who accepts the Vedas, the Smritis, the Puranas and the Tantras
as the basis of religion and of the rule of conduct, and believes in one Supreme God
(Brahman), in the Law of Karma or retributive justice, and in reincarnation (Punarjanma),
is a Hindu.”
“He who follows the Vedic or Sanatana-Dharma is a Hindu.” This is the
definition by some.
“He who is a follower of the Vedanta is a Hindu.” This is another definition
given by some others.
“He who has perfect faith in the Law of Karma, the law of reincarnation Avatara,
ancestor worship, Varnashrama Dharma, Vedas and existence of God, he who
practises the instructions given in the Vedas with faith and earnestness, he who does Sandhya,
Sraaddha, Pitri-Tarpana and the Pancha-Maha-Yajnas, he who follows the
Varnashrama Dharmas, he who worships the Avataras and studies the Vedas, is a Hindu.”
This is the definition given by some highly cultured men. This is the only correct and
complete definition.
Origin And Significance Of The Term
That part of the great Aryan race which migrated from Central Asia, through the
mountain passes into India, settled first in the districts near the river Sindhu, now
called the Indus, on the other side of the river. The Persians pronounced the word Sindhu
as Hindu, and named their Aryan brethren Hindus. Hindu is only a corrupt form of Sindhu.
The Hindu Aryans spread themselves over the plains of the Ganga. Then the Persians gave
the name Hindusthan, or abode of the Hindus, to the whole of those districts between
Punjab and Benaras.(Latest historical researches have now proved that the Aryans did
not come from outside India, but were the original inhabitants of India.)
The classical name for India which is used in Sanskrit literature is Bharata-Varsha or
Bharata-Khanda, after the name of Bharata who ruled over a large extent of
territory in days of yore. Manu’s name for the whole central region between the
Himalayas and the Vindhya mountains is Aryavarta, Abode of the Aryans. Another name
for the whole of India is Jambu-Dvipa. The Greeks gave the name Indu to the whole
of this country. It was on account of this India became popular as the name of this
country throughout Europe.
Hindu is not a mere name. This name Hindu is not only of geographical,
but also of national and racial importance. The whole history of our nation from the very
beginning is bound up with it. All our ideas and ideals are so intimately connected with
it that it is difficult to give a simple definition of it. Poets, prophets and Avataras
came to sing the praises and glory of this name. Rishis, sages and saints took their birth
to compile the Sastras and Darsanas for this nation. Heroes and warriors
have fought for its honour and laid down their very lives for it. Piety, nobility,
generosity, philosophy, religious bent of mind, Yoga, religious tolerance, wisdom,
devotion, renunciation, Self-realisation. Ahimsa, Satya and purity are associated with the
name ‘Hindu’.
The Spiritual Soil Of India
India is the sacred land which has given birth to countless sages, Rishis, Yogins,
saints and prophets. India is the land that has produced many Acharyas or spiritual
preceptors like Sri Sankara and Sri Ramanuja; many saints like Kabir, Ramdas, Tukaram and
Gauranga Mahaprabhu; many Yogins like Jnana Dev, Dattatreya and Sadasiva Brahman; and many
prophets like Buddha and Nanak. Buddha is our flesh and blood.
India is proud of Guru Govind Singh and Sivaji. India is proud of king Bhoja and
Vikramaditya. India is proud of Sankara and Kabir. India is proud of Valmiki and Kalidasa.
Krishna, Rama and all Avataras were born in India. How sacred is India! How sublime is
India! The dust of Brindavan and Ayodhya, the land trodden by the sacred feet of Krishna
and Rama, still purifies the heart of countless people. Even Jesus, during the missing
period of His life, lived in Kashmir and learnt Yoga from the Indian Yogins. Glory to
Mother India!
India is a spiritual country. India never conquered territories or annexed dominions.
Military conquest is not her ambition. She wants her children to have Atma-Svarajya or
Absolute Independence. She does not call upon them to rule over others. She wants them to
have conquest over internal and external nature. She wants them to possess brilliant
divine virtues, moral stamina and inner spiritual strength born of wisdom of the soul.
Ahimsa is her weapon to have the spiritual conquest and the conquest of the minds of
others.
People of India have Self-realisation as their goal. They do not, generally, bestow too
much attention on material prosperity and advancement. They want Yoga or communion with
the Supreme Being. They practise Ahimsa, Satya and Brahmacharya. They wish to enjoy the
eternal bliss of the Absolute. They are always ready to renounce worldly possessions in
order to possess or realise the inner Atman or Brahman. They will sacrifice anything and
everything in order to attain the immortal Atman. They are always spiritual-minded.
India is the sacred land with several holy rivers and powerful spiritual vibrations.
The hoary Himalayas attract the people of the whole world. It is a land peculiarly
suitable for divine contemplation and Yogic practices. Every country has its own special
attractive features. India is the land of Yogins and sages. This is the special attractive
feature of India. This is the reason why people from America, England and all parts of the
world come to India for the practice of Yoga.
The Facts Of History
India is the most tolerant country in the world. She has a very expansive heart.
She includes all nations in the embrace of her love.
The Western nations are the descendents of the original Hindus or Aryans. They might
have forgotten their old connections with the Aryans and Hindu culture. They might have
forgotten all about their ancestors. But this cannot be effaced from the annals of
history. Mother India, the repository of Hindu culture, cannot forget her children beyond
the seas. They are always dear to her.
Hindu culture and Hindu civilisation were at their zenith in the days of yore. Greeks
and Romans imitated the Hindus and absorbed Hindu thoughts. Even now Hindu culture and
Hindu civilisation stand foremost in the world. No religion has produced so many great
saints, sages, Yogins, Rishis, Maharshis, prophets, Acharyas, benefactors, heroes, poets,
statesmen and kings as Hinduism. Each and every province of the country has produced
intellectual giants, poets and saints. Even now India abounds in Rishis, philosophers,
saints and high intellectuals. Even now she abounds in sages and great souls.
The Hindus had to undergo severe hardships and tortures. They had to face fierce
battles and cruelties and yet they live today. Some mysterious power has preserved them.
Some invisible force has protected them. That power will protect them for ever.
Reasons For Survival Of The Hindu Religion
Hinduism is neither asceticism nor illusionism, neither polytheism nor pantheism.
It is the synthesis of all types of religious experiences. It is a whole and complete view
of life. It is characterised by wide toleration, deep humanity and high spiritual purpose.
It is free from fanaticism. That is the reason why it has survived the attacks of the
followers of some of the other great religions of the world.
No religion is so very elastic and tolerant like Hinduism. Hinduism is very stern and
rigid regarding the fundamentals. It is very elastic in readjusting to the externals and
non-essentials. That is the reason why it has succeeded in living through millennia.
The foundation of Hinduism has been laid on the bedrock of spiritual truths. The entire
structure of Hindu life is built on eternal truths, the findings of the Hindu Rishis or
seers. That is the reason why this structure has lasted through scores of centuries.
Its Future
The glory of Hinduism is ineffable. It has within it all the features of a
universal religion. Its Dharmas are universal. Its doctrines are sublime. Its philosophy
is grand. Its ethics is soul-elevating. Its scriptures are wonderful. Its Sadhanas or
Yoga-Vedantic practices are unique. Glorious has been the past of this religion; still
more glorious is its future. It has a message to give to a world rent asunder by hatred,
dissension and war—the message of cosmic love, truth and non-violence, the gospel of
unity of Self or Upanishadic oneness.
The more you know of India and Hinduism, the more will you come to regard and love it
and the more grateful to the Lord will you be in that you have got a taste for practising
Yoga and that you are imbibing the teachings and spirit of Hinduism.
Glory to India! Glory to Hinduism! Glory, glory to the Rishis and the seers who have
kept burning the flame of Hinduism with its extreme effulgence and splendour!
CHAPTER 2
HINDU SCRIPTURES
Sanskrit Literature
Sanskrit literature can be classified under six orthodox heads and four secular
heads. The six orthodox sections form the authoritative scriptures of the Hindus. The four
secular sections embody the later developments in classical Sanskrit literature.
The six scriptures are: (i) Srutis, (ii) Smritis, (iii) Itihasas, (iv) Puranas, (v)
Agamas and (vi) Darsanas.
The four secular writings are: (i) Subhashitas, (ii) Kavyas, (iii) Natakas and (iv)
Alankaras.
The Scriptures
The Srutis
The Srutis are called the Vedas, or the Amnaya. The Hindus have
received their religion through revelation, the Vedas. These are direct intuitional
revelations and are held to be Apaurusheya or entirely superhuman, without any
author in particular. The Veda is the glorious pride of the Hindus, nay, of the whole
world!
The term Veda comes from the root Vid, to know. The word Veda means
knowledge. When it is applied to scripture, it signifies a book of knowledge. The Vedas
are the foundational scriptures of the Hindus. The Veda is the source of the other five
sets of scriptures, why, even of the secular and the materialistic. The Veda is the
storehouse of Indian wisdom and is a memorable glory which man can never forget till
eternity.
Revealed Truths Without Beginning or End
The Vedas are the eternal truths revealed by God to the great ancient Rishis of India.
The word Rishi means a seer from dris, to see. He is the Mantra-Drashta, a
seer of Mantra or thought. The thought was not his own. The Rishis saw the truths or heard
them. Therefore, the Vedas are what are heard (Sruti). The Rishi did not write. He did not
create it out of his mind. He was the seer of thought which existed already. He was only
the spiritual discoverer of the thought. He is not the inventor of the Veda.
The Vedas represent the spiritual experiences of the Rishis of yore. The Rishi is only
a medium or an agent to transmit to people the intuitional experiences which he received.
The truths of the Vedas are revelations. All the other religions of the world claim their
authority as being delivered by special messengers of God to certain persons, but the
Vedas do not owe their authority to any one. They are themselves the authority as they are
eternal, as they are the Knowledge of the Lord.
Lord Brahma, the Creator, imparted the divine knowledge to the Rishis or seers. The
Rishis disseminated the knowledge. The Vedic Rishis were great realised persons who had
direct intuitive perception of Brahman or the Truth. They were inspired writers. They
built a simple, grand and perfect system of religion and philosophy from which the
founders and teachers of all other religions have drawn their inspiration.
The Vedas are the oldest books in the library of man. The truths contained in all
religions are derived from the Vedas and are ultimately traceable to the Vedas. The Vedas
are the fountain-head of religion. The Vedas are the ultimate source to which all
religious knowledge can be traced. Religion is of divine origin. It was revealed by God to
man in the earliest times. It is embodied in the Vedas.
The Vedas are eternal. They are without beginning and end. An ignorant man may say how
a book can be without
beginning or end. By the Vedas, no books are meant. Vedas came out of the breath of the
Lord. They are the words of God. The Vedas are not the utterances of persons. They are not
the composition of any human mind. They were never written, never created. They are
eternal and impersonal. The date of the Vedas has never been fixed. It can never be fixed.
Vedas are eternal spiritual truths. Vedas are an embodiment of divine knowledge. The books
may be destroyed, but the knowledge cannot be destroyed. Knowledge is eternal. In that
sense, the Vedas are eternal.
The Four Vedas and Their Sub Divisions
The Veda is divided into four great books: the Rig-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, the Sama-Veda
and the Atharva-Veda. The Yajur-Veda is again divided into two parts, the Sukla and the
Krishna. The Krishna or the Taittiriya is the older book and the Sukla or the Vajasaneya
is a later revelation to sage Yajnavalkya from the resplendent Sun-God.
The Rig-Veda is divided into twenty-one sections, the Yajur-Veda into one hundred and
nine sections, the Sama-Veda into one thousand sections and the Atharva-Veda into fifty
sections. In all, the whole Veda is thus divided into one thousand one hundred and eighty
recensions.
Each Veda consists of four parts: the Mantra-Samhitas or hymns, the Brahmanas or
explanations of Mantras or rituals, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The division of the
Vedas into four parts is to suit the four stages in a man’s life.
The Mantra-Samhitas are hymns in praise of the Vedic God for attaining material
prosperity here and happiness hereafter. They are metrical poems comprising prayers, hymns
and incantations addressed to various deities, both subjective and objective. The Mantra
portion of the Vedas is useful for the Brahmacharins.
The Brahmana portions guide people to perform sacrificial rites. They are prose
explanations of the method of using the Mantras in the Yajna or the sacrifice. The
Brahmana portion is suitable for the householders.
The Aranyakas are the forest books, the mystical sylvan texts which give philosophical
interpretations of the rituals. The Aranyakas are intended for the Vanaprasthas or hermits
who prepare themselves for taking Sannyasa.
The Upanishads are the most important portion of the Vedas. The Upanishads contain the
essence or the knowledge portion of the Vedas. The philosophy of the Upanishads is
sublime, profound, lofty and soul-stirring. The Upanishads speak of the identity of the
individual soul and the Supreme Soul. They reveal the most subtle and deep spiritual
truths. The Upanishads are useful for the Sannyasins.
The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and
Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic Section deals with various sacrifices
and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship-Section deals with various kinds of worship or
meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of
Nirguna Brahman. The Mantras and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas
Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads Jnana-Kanda.
The Mantra-Samhitas
The Rig-Veda Samhita is the grandest book of the Hindus, the oldest and the best. It is
the Great Indian Bible, which no Hindu would forget to adore from the core of his heart.
Its style, the language and the tone are most beautiful and mysterious. Its immortal
Mantras embody the greatest truths of existence, and it is perhaps the greatest treasure
in all the scriptural literature of the world. Its priest is called the Hotri.
The Yajur-Veda Samhita is mostly in prose and is meant to be used by the Adhvaryu, the
Yajur-Vedic priest, for superfluous explanations of the rites in sacrifices, supplementing
the Rig-Vedic Mantras.
The Sama-Veda Samhita is mostly borrowed from the Rig-Vedic Samhita and is meant to be
sung by the Udgatri, the Sama-Vedic priest, in sacrifices.
The Atharva-Veda Samhita is meant to be used by the Brahma, the Atharva-Vedic priest,
to correct the mispronunciations and wrong performances that may accidentally be committed
by the other three priests of the sacrifice.
The Brahmanas and the Aranyakas
There are two Brahmanas to the Rig-Veda—the Aitareya and the Sankhayana. “The
Rig-Veda,” says Max Muller, “is the most ancient book of the world. The sacred
hymns of the Brahmanas stand unparalleled in the literature of the whole world; and their
preservation might well be called miraculous.” (HISTORY OF ANCIENT SANSKRIT
LITERATURE)
The Satapatha Brahmana belongs to the Sukla Yajur-Veda. The Krishna-Yajur-Veda has the
Taittiriya and the Maitrayana Brahmanas. The Tandya or Panchavimsa, the Shadvimsa, the
Chhandogya, the Adbhuta, the Arsheya and the Upanishad Brahmanas belong to the Sama-Veda.
The Brahmana of the Atharva-Veda is called the Gopatha. Each of the Brahmanas has got an
Aranyaka.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas or the end of the Vedas. The
teaching based on them is called Vedanta. The Upanishads are the gist and the goal of the
Vedas. They form the very foundation of Hinduism.
There are as many Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas, branches or recensions,
i.e., 21, 109, 1000 and 50 respectively to the four Vedas, the Rig-Veda, the Yajur-Veda,
the Sama-Veda and the Atharva-Veda.
The different philosophers of India belonging to different schools, such as Monism,
Qualified Monism, Dualism, Pure Monism, Difference-cum-non-difference, etc., have
acknowledged the supreme authority of the Upanishads. They have given their own
interpretations, but they have obeyed the authority. They have built their philosophy on
the foundation of the Upanishads.
Even the Western scholars have paid their tribute to the seers of the Upanishads. At a
time when the Westerners were clad in barks and were sunk in deep ignorance, the
Upanishadic seers were enjoying the eternal bliss of the Absolute, and had the highest
culture and civilisation.
The most important Upanishads are Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya,
Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kaushitaki and Svetasvatara and
Maitrayani. These are supremely authoritative.
May the fundamental truths of the Vedas be revealed unto you all, like the Amalaka
fruit in the palm of your hand. May Gayatri, the blessed Mother of the Vedas, impart to
you the milk of Knowledge, the ancient wisdom of the Upanishads.
The Upa-Vedas
There are four Upa-Vedas or subsidiary Vedas, viz., the Ayurveda, the
Dhanurveda, the Gandharva Veda and the Arthasastra, forming auxiliaries to the four Vedas,
which mean, respectively, the science of health, the science of war, the science of music
and the science of polity.
The Vedangas
There are six Angas or explanatory limbs, to the Vedas: the Siksha and Vyakarana
of Panini, the Chhandas of Pingalacharya, the Nirukta of Yaska, the Jyotisha
of Garga, and the Kalpas (Srauta, Grihya, Dharma and Sulba) belonging to the
authorship of various Rishis.
Siksha is a knowledge of phonetics. Siksha deals with pronunciation and accent. The
text of the Vedas is arranged in various forms or Pathas. The Pada-patha gives each
word its separate form. The Krama-patha connects the word in pairs.
Vyakarana is Sanskrit grammar. Panini’s books are most famous. Without knowledge
of Vyakarana, you cannot understand the Vedas.
Chhandas is metre dealing with prosody.
Nirukta is philology or etymology.
Jyotisha is astronomy and astrology. It deals with the movements of the heavenly
bodies, planets, etc., and their influence in human affairs.
Kalpa is the method of ritual. The Srauta Sutras which explain the ritual of sacrifices
belong to Kalpa. The sulba Sutras, which treat of the measurements which are necessary for
laying out the sacrificial areas, also belong to Kalpa. The Grihya Sutras which concern
domestic life, and the Dharma Sutras which deal with ethics, customs and laws, also belong
to Kalpa.
The Pratishakhyas, Padapathas, Kramapathas, Upalekhas, Anukramanis, Daivatsamhitas,
Parishishtas, Prayogas, Paddhatis, Karikas, Khilas and Vyuhas are further elaborations in
the rituals of the Kalpa Sutras.
Among the Kalpa Sutras, the Asvalayana, Sankhyana and the Sambhavya belong to the
Rig-Veda. The Mashaka, Latyayana, Drahyayana, Gobhila and Khadira belong to the Sama-Veda.
The Katyayana and Paraskara belong to the Sukla Yajur-Veda. The Apastamba, Hiranyakesi,
Bodhayana, Bharadvaja, Manava, Vaikhanasa and the Kathaka belong to the Krishna
Yajur-Veda. The Vaitana and the Kaushika belong to the Atharva-Veda.
The Smritis
Next in importance to the Sruti are the Smritis or secondary scriptures. These are the
ancient sacred law-codes of the Hindus dealing with the Sanatana-Varnasrama-Dharma. They
supplement and explain the ritualistic injunctions called Vidhis in the Vedas. The
Smriti Sastra is founded on the Sruti. The Smritis are based on the teachings of the
Vedas. The Smriti stands next in authority to the Sruti. It explains and develops Dharma.
It lays down the laws which regulate Hindu national, social, family and individual
obligations.
The works which are expressly called Smritis are the law books, Dharma Sastras. Smriti,
in a broader sense, covers all Hindu Sastras save the Vedas.
The laws for regulating Hindu society from time to time are codified in the Smritis.
The Smritis have laid down definite rules and laws to guide the individuals and
communities in their daily conduct and to regulate their manners and customs. The Smritis
have given detailed instructions, according to the conditions of the time, to all classes
of men regarding their duties in life.
The Hindu learns how he has to spend his whole life from these Smritis. The duties of
Varnasrama and all ceremonies are clearly given in these books. The Smritis prescribe
certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to his birth and stage of
life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of man and take him gradually to
the supreme abode of immortality and make him perfect and free.
These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the
Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and
essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be
compiled by the sages of different ages and different parts of India.
The Celebrated Hindu Law-Givers
From time to time, a great law-giver would take his birth. He would codify the existing
laws and remove those which had become obsolete. He would make some alterations,
adaptations, readjustments, additions and subtractions, to suit the needs of the time and
see that the way of living of the people would be in accordance with the teachings of the
Veda. Of such law-givers, Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated persons.
Hindu society is founded on, and governed by, the laws made by these three great sages.
The Smritis are named after them. We have Manu Smriti or Manava Dharma-Sastra (the Laws of
Manu or the Institutes of Manu), Yajnavalkya Smriti and Parasara Smriti. Manu is the
greatest law-giver of the race. He is the oldest law-giver as well. The Yajnavalkya Smriti
follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu
Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as
authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters
of Hindu Law. Even the Government of India are applying some of these laws.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Sastras. The most important are those of
Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara. The other fifteen are those of Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta,
Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita,
Usana, Atri and Saunaka.
The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the
Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara
are for the Kali Yuga.
The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime,
must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then
only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.
Need for a New Law-Code
It is not possible to follow some of the laws of Manu at the present time. We can
follow their spirit and not the letter. Society is advancing. When it advances, it
outgrows certain laws which were valid and helpful at a particular stage of its growth.
Many new things which were not thought out by the old law-givers have come into existence
now. It is no use insisting people to follow now those old laws which have become
obsolete.
Our present society has considerably changed. A new Smriti to suit the requirements of
this age is very necessary. Another sage will place before the Hindus of our days a new
suitable code of laws. Time is ripe for a new Smriti. Cordial greetings to this age.
The Inner Voice of Dharma
He who is endowed with a pure heart through protracted Tapas, Japa, Kirtana, meditation
and service of Guru and who has a very clear conscience, can be guided by the inner voice
in matters of Dharma or duty or moral action. The inner voice that proceeds from a clean
heart filled with Sattva is, indeed, the voice of God or Soul or Antaryamin or Inner
Ruler. This voice is more than Smriti. It is Smriti of Smritis. Purify your heart and
train yourself to hear this inner voice. Keep your ear in tune with the ‘voice’.
The Sruti and the Smriti
The Sruti and the Smriti are the two authoritative sources of Hinduism. Sruti literally
means what is heard, and Smriti means what is remembered. Sruti is revelation and
Smriti is tradition. Upanishad is a Sruti. Bhagavad-Gita is a Smriti.
Sruti is direct experience. Great Rishis heard the eternal truths of religion and left
a record of them for the benefit of posterity. These records constitute the Vedas. Hence,
Sruti is primary authority. Smriti is a recollection of that experience. Hence, it is
secondary authority. The Smritis or Dharma Sastras also are books written by sages, but
they are not the final authority. If there is anything in a Smriti which contradicts the
Sruti, the Smriti is to be rejected.
The Itihasas
The Friendly Treatises and the Commanding Treatises
There are four books under this heading: The Valmiki-Ramayana, the Yogavasishtha, The
Mahabharata and the Harivamsa. These embody all that is in the Vedas, but only in a
simpler manner. These are called the Suhrit-Samhitas or the Friendly Treatises, while the
Vedas are called the Prabhu-Samhitas or the Commanding Treatises with great authority.
These works explain the great universal truths in the form of historical narratives,
stories and dialogues. These are very interesting volumes and are liked by all, from the
inquisitive child to the intellectual scholar.
The Itihasas give us beautiful stories of absorbing interest and importance, through
which all the fundamental teachings of Hinduism are indelibly impressed on one’s
mind. The laws of Smritis and the principles of the Vedas are stamped firmly on the minds
of the Hindus through the noble and marvellous deeds of their great national heroes. We
get a clear idea of Hinduism from these sublime stories.
The common man cannot comprehend the high abstract philosophy of the Upanishads and the
Brahma Sutras. Hence, the compassionate sages Valmiki and Vyasa wrote the Itihasas for the
benefit of common people. The same philosophy is presented with analogies and parables in
a tasteful form to the common run of mankind.
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and
Mahabharata. They are two very popular and useful Sastras of the Hindus. The
Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Vyasa.
The Ramayana
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the
ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ikshvaku, in
which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The
ideal characters like Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in
Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and
his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and
recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the
reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards
his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man
should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection,
may be learnt from this excellent epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian life.
Even today our domestic, social and national ideals are copied from the noble characters
in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The great national heroes stand even today as
beacon-lights to guide and inspire the people of the whole world. The lives of Rama,
Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri
Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most
perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and sweetness. The Ramayana is written in
twenty-four thousand verses by Sri Valmiki.
The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description
of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the
Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an
encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is rightly called the fifth Veda. There is really no
theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch
and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many
beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set
forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Pandavas obtained victory through the
grace of Lord Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand verses by Sri
Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa.
The Bhagavad-Gita
The most important part of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad-Gita. It is a
marvellous dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the battle-field, before the
commencement of the great war. Bhagavan Sri Krishna became the charioteer of Arjuna. Sri
Krishna explained the essentials of Hindu religion to Arjuna. Just as the Upanishads
contain the cream of the Vedas, so does the Gita contain the cream of the Upanishads. The
Upanishads are the cows. Lord Krishna is the cowherd. Arjuna is the calf. The Gita is the
milk. The wise men are those who drink the milk of the Gita.
The Gita is the most precious jewel of Hindu literature. It is a universal gospel. The
Gita teaches the Yoga of Synthesis. It ranks high in the religious literature of the
world.
Arjuna saw before him his dear relatives and teachers in the battle-field. He fainted
and refused to fight against them. Then Lord Krishna imparted knowledge of the Self to
Arjuna and convinced him that it was his duty to fight regardless of consequences.
Afterwards Arjuna gave up his Moha, or delusion. All his doubts were cleared. He
fought against the Kauravas and achieved victory.
Knowledge of Ancient Indian History and Culture
The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he
gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms
an encyclopaedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the
world.
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her
people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilisation and culture, her
manufactures, etc. If you read these two books, you will come to know how great India once
was, and you will be inspired to make her great once more. No other country has produced
so many great men, great teachers, great Yogins, great Rishis, great prophets, great
Acharyas, great kings, great heroes, great statesmen, great patriots and great
benefactors, as India. The more you know of India and Hinduism, the more you will honour
and love it and the more thankful to the Lord you will be that you were born in India as a
Hindu. Glory to India! Glory to Hinduism! Glory to the seers of the Upanishads! Glory,
glory to Lord Krishna, the author of the Song Divine!
The Puranas
The Puranas are of the same class as the Itihasas. They have five characteristics (Pancha-Lakshana)
viz., history, cosmology (with various symbolical illustrations of philosophical
principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings and of Manvantaras. All the Puranas
belong to the class of Suhrit-Samhitas.
Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is
Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara.
The Puranas were written to popularise the religion of the Vedas. They contain the
essence of the Vedas. The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the
teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through concrete examples,
myths, stories, legends, lives of saints, kings and great men, allegories and chronicles
of great historical events. The sages made use of these things to illustrate the eternal
principles of religion. The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary
people who could not understand high philosophy and who could not study the Vedas.
The Darsanas are very stiff. They are meant only for the learned few. The Puranas are
meant for the masses with inferior intellect. Religion is taught in a very easy and
interesting way through these Puranas. Even to this day, the Puranas are popular. The
Puranas contain the history of remote times. They also give a description of the regions
of the universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. They are very interesting to
read and are full of information of all kinds. Children hear the stories from their
grandmothers. Pundits and Purohits hold Kathas in temples, on banks of rivers and in other
important places. Agriculturists, labourers and bazaar people hear the stories.
The Eighteen Puranas
There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or
Upa-Puranas. The main Puranas are: Vishnu Purana, Naradiya Purana, Srimad Bhagavata
Purana, Garuda (Suparna) Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana, Brahma Purana, Brahmanda
Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Matsya
Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Siva Purana, Skanda Purana and Agni Purana. Of these,
six are Sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu; six are Rajasic and glorify Brahma; six are
Tamasic and they glorify Siva.
Neophytes or beginners in the spiritual Path are puzzled when they go through Siva
Purana and Vishnu Purana. In Siva Purana, Lord Siva is highly eulogised and an inferior
position is given to Lord Vishnu. Sometimes Vishnu is belittled. In Vishnu Purana, Lord
Hari is highly eulogised and an inferior status is given to Lord Siva. Sometimes Lord Siva
is belittled. This is only to increase the faith of the devotees in their particular
Ishta-Devata. Lord Siva and Lord Vishnu are one.
The best among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata and the Vishnu Purana. The most
popular is the Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes Vishnu Purana. A portion of the
Markandeya Purana is well known to all Hindus as Chandi, or Devimahatmya. Worship
of God as the Divine Mother is its theme. Chandi is read widely by the Hindus on sacred
days and Navaratri (Durga Puja) days.
The Srimad Bhagavata Purana and the Ten Avataras
The Srimad Bhagavata Purana is a chronicle of the various Avataras of Lord Vishnu.
There are ten Avataras of Vishnu. The aim of every Avatara is to save the world from some
great danger, to destroy the wicked and protect the virtuous. The ten Avataras are: Matsya
(The Fish), Kurma (The Tortoise), Varaha (The Boar), Narasimha (The Man-Lion), Vamana (The
Dwarf), Parasurama (Rama with the axe, the destroyer of the Kshatriya race), Ramachandra
(The hero of Ramayana—the son of Dasaratha), who destroyed Ravana, Sri Krishna, The
teacher of the Gita, Buddha (The prince-ascetic, founder of Buddhism) and Kalki (The hero
riding on a white horse, who is to come at the end of the Kali-Yuga).
The object of the Matsya Avatara was to save Vaivasvata Manu from destruction by a
deluge. The object of Kurma Avatara was to enable the world to recover some precious
things which were lost in the deluge. The Kurma gave its back for keeping the churning rod
when the Gods and the Asuras churned the ocean of milk. The purpose of Varaha Avatara was
to rescue, from the waters, the earth which had been dragged down by a demon named
Hiranyaksha. The purpose of Narasimha Avatara, half-lion and half-man, was to free the
world from the oppression of Hiranyakasipu, a demon, the father of Bhakta Prahlada. The
object of Vamana Avatara was to restore the power of the gods which had been eclipsed by
the penance and devotion of King Bali. The object of Parasurama Avatara was to deliver the
country from the oppression of the Kshatriya rulers. Parasurama destroyed the Kshatriya
race twenty-one times. The object of Rama was to destroy the wicked Ravana. The object of
Sri Krishna Avatara was to destroy Kamsa and other demons, to deliver His wonderful
message of the Gita in the Mahabharata war, and to become the centre of the Bhakti schools
of India. The object of Buddha Avatara was to prohibit animal sacrifices and teach piety.
The object of the Kalki Avatara is the destruction of the wicked and the re-establishment
of virtue.
The Tamil Puranas
Lord Siva incarnated himself in the form of Dakshinamurti to impart knowledge to the
four Kumaras. He took human form to initiate Sambandhar, Manikkavasagar, Pattinathar. He
appeared in flesh and blood to help his devotees and relieve their sufferings. The divine
Lilas of Lord Siva are recorded in the Tamil Puranas like Siva Purana, Periya Purana, Siva
Parakramam and Tiruvilayadal Purana.
The Upa-Puranas
The eighteen Upa-Puranas are: Sanatkumara, Narasimha, Brihannaradiya, Sivarahasya,
Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara,
Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa and Hamsa.
Utility of the Puranas
Study of the Puranas, listening to sacred recitals of scriptures, describing and
expounding of the transcendent Lilas of the Blessed Lord—these form an important part
of Sadhana of the Lord’s devotees. It is most pleasing to the Lord. Sravana is
a part of Navavidha-Bhakti. Kathas and Upanyasas open the springs of
devotion in the hearts of hearers and develop Prema-Bhakti which confers
immortality on the Jiva.
The language of the Vedas is archaic, and the subtle philosophy of Vedanta and the
Upanishads is extremely difficult to grasp and assimilate. Hence, the Puranas are of
special value as they present philosophical truths and precious teachings in an easier
manner. They give ready access to the mysteries of life and the key to bliss. Imbibe their
teachings. Start a new life of Dharma-Nishtha and Adhyatmic Sadhana from this very day.
The Agamas
Another class of popular scriptures are the Agamas. The Agamas are theological
treatises and practical manuals of divine worship. The Agamas include the Tantras, Mantras
and Yantras. These are treatises explaining the external worship of God, in idols,
temples, etc. All the Agamas treat of (i) Jnana or Knowledge, (ii) Yoga or
Concentration, (iii) Kriya or Esoteric Ritual and (iv) Charya or Exoteric
Worship. They also give elaborate details about ontology and cosmology, liberation,
devotion, meditation, philosophy of Mantras, mystic diagrams, charms and spells,
temple-building, image-making, domestic observances, social rules, public festivals, etc.
The Agamas are divided into three sections: The Vaishnava, the Saiva and
the Sakta. The three chief sects of Hinduism, viz., Vaishnavism, Saivism and
Saktism, base their doctrines and dogmas on their respective Agamas. The Vaishnava Agamas
or Pancharatra Agamas glorify God as Vishnu. The Saiva Agamas glorify God as Siva and have
given rise to an important school of philosophy known as Saiva-Siddhanta, which prevails
in South India, particularly in the districts of Tirunelveli and Madurai. The Sakta Agamas
or Tantras glorify God as the Mother of the Universe, under one of the many names of Devi.
The Agamas do not derive their authority from the Vedas, but are not antagonistic to
them. They are all Vedic in spirit and character. That is the reason why they are regarded
as authoritative.
The Vaishnava Agamas
The Vaishnava Agamas are of four kinds: the Vaikhanasa, Pancharatra, Pratishthasara and
Vijnanalalita. The Brahma, Saiva Kaumara, Vasishtha, Kapila, Gautamiya and the Naradiya
are the seven groups of the Pancharatras. The Naradiya section of the Santi-Parva of the
Mahabharata is the earliest source of information about the Pancharatras.
Vishnu is the Supreme Lord in the Pancharatra Agamas. The Vaishnavas regard the
Pancharatra Agamas to be the most authoritative. They believe that these Agamas were
revealed by Lord Vishnu Himself. Narada-Pancharatra says: “Everything from Brahma to
a blade of grass is Lord Krishna.” This corresponds to the Upanishadic declaration:
“All this is, verily, Brahman—Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma.”
There are two hundred and fifteen of these Vaishnava texts. Isvara, Ahirbudhnya,
Paushkara, Parama, Sattvata, Brihad-Brahma and Jnanamritasara Samhitas are the important
ones.
The Saiva Agamas
The Saivas recognise twenty-eight Agamas, of which the chief is Kamika. The Agamas are
also the basis of Kashmir Saivism which is called the Pratyabhijna system. The latter
works of Pratyabhijna system show a distinct leaning to Advaitism. The Southern Saivism,
i.e., Saiva Siddhanta and the Kashmir Saivism, regard these Agamas as their authority,
besides the Vedas. Each Agama has Upa-Agamas. Of these, only fragmentary texts of twenty
are extant. Lord Siva is the central God in the Saiva Agamas. They are suitable to this
age, Kali Yoga. They are open to all castes and both the sexes.
The Sakta Agamas
There is another group of scriptures known as the Tantras. They belong to the
Sakta cult. They glorify Sakti as the World-Mother. They dwell on the Sakti (energy)
aspect of God and prescribe numerous courses of ritualistic worship of the Divine Mother
in various forms. There are seventy-seven Agamas. These are very much like the Puranas in
some respects. The texts are usually in the form of dialogues between Siva and Parvati. In
some of these, Siva answers the questions put by Parvati, and in others, Parvati answers,
Siva questioning. Mahanirvana, Kularnava, Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Tantraraja,
Rudra-Yamala, Brahma-Yamala, Vishnu-Yamala and Todala Tantra are the important works. The
Agamas teach several occult practices some of which confer powers, while the others bestow
knowledge and freedom. Sakti is the creative power of Lord Siva. Saktism is really a
supplement to Saivism.
Among the existing books on the Agamas, the most famous are the Isvara-Samhita,
Ahirbudhnya-Samhita, Sanatkumara-Samhita, Narada-Pancharatra, Spanda-Pradipika and the
Mahanirvana-Tantra.
The Six Darsanas
These are the intellectual section of the Hindu writings, while the first four are
intuitional, and the fifth inspirational and emotional. Darsanas are schools of philosophy
based on the Vedas. The Agamas are theological. The Darsana literature is philosophical.
The Darsanas are meant for the erudite scholars who are endowed with acute acumen, good
understanding, power of reasoning and subtle intellect. The Itihasas, Puranas and Agamas
are meant for the masses. The Darsanas appeal to the intellect, while the Itihasas,
Puranas, etc., appeal to the heart.
Philosophy has six divisions—Shad-darsana—the six Darsanas or ways of
seeing things, usually called the six systems or six different schools of thought. The six
schools of philosophy are the six instruments of true teaching or the six demonstrations
of Truth. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the
Veda in its own way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e., the one great Rishi who
systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras.
The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the
aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by
great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras. There
are glosses, notes and, later, commentaries on the original commentaries.
The Shad-Darsanas (the six schools of philosophy) or the Shat-Sastras are: the NYAYA,
founded by Gautama Rishi, the VAISESHIKA by Kanada Rishi, the SANKHYA by Kapila Muni, the
YOGA by Patanjali Maharshi, the PURVA MIMAMSA by Jaimini, and the UTTARA MIMAMSA or
VEDANTA by Badarayana or Vyasa. The Darsanas are divided into three pairs of aphoristic
compositions which explain the philosophy of the Vedas in a rationalistic method of
approach. They are: the Nyaya and the Vaiseshika, the Sankhya and the Yoga, and the
Mimamsa and the Vedanta. Each set of Sutras has got its Bhashya, Vritti, Varttika,
Vyakhyana or Tika and Tippani.
Sutra
Svalpaksharam-asandigdham
Saravad-visvatomukham
Astobham-anavadyam cha
Sutram sutravido viduh
A Sutra or an aphorism is a short formula with the least possible number of letters,
without any ambiguity or doubtful assertion, containing the very essence, embracing all
meanings, without any stop or obstruction and absolutely faultless in nature.
The Sutrakara or the composer of the aphorisms is said to be as happy as one would be
while getting the first male child, if he is but able to reduce one letter in his abstruse
Sutra of far-fetched words and ideas. The best example of the greatest, the tersest and
the most perfect of Sutra literature is the series of aphorisms called the Ashtadhyayi composed
by Panini. Panini is the father of all Sutrakaras from whom all others seem to have
borrowed the method of composition. The Sutras are meant to explain a big volume of
knowledge in short assertions suitable to be kept in memory at all times. The six Vedangas
and the six systems of Hindu philosophy form the twelve sets of Sutra literature of the
world. In addition to these, there are later compositions like the Narada-Bhakti Sutras,
the Sandilya-Bhakti Sutras, etc., which also wish to assume an equal form with the famous
Sutras mentioned above.
Bhashya
Sutrartho varnyate yatra
Padaih sutranusaribhih
Svapadani cha varnyante
Bhashyam bhashyavido viduh
A Bhashya is an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with word by word
meaning of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation, together with the
individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara. The best and the exemplary Bhashya
in Sanskrit literature is the one written by Patanjali on the Vyakarana Sutras of Panini.
This Bhashya is so very famous and important that it is called the MAHABHASHYA and its
celebrated author is specially called the BHASHYAKARA. Patanjali is the father of
Bhashyakaras. The next important Bhashya is the one on the Mimamsa Sutras written by
Sabara-Swamin who learnt the art from Patanjali’s commentary. The third important
Bhashya was written by Sankara on the Brahma Sutras, in close following with the
Sabara-Bhashya. The Bhashyas on the six sets of aphorisms dealing with Indian philosophy
were written by Vatsyayana, Prasastapada, Vijnanabhikshu, Vyasa, Sabara and Sankara. On
the Vedanta or Brahma Sutras, there are about sixteen Bhashyas, like those of Ramanuja,
Madhva, Vallabha, Nimbarka, etc.
Vritti
Sadvrittih sannibandhana
A Vritti is a short gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as
extensively as a Bhashya. An example is Bodhayana’s Vritti on the Brahma Sutras.
Varttika
Uktanuktaduruktanam
Chinta yatra pravartate
Tam grantham varttikam prahuh
Varttikajnavichakshanah
A Varttika is a work where a critical study is made of that which is said and left
unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya, and the ways of making it perfect by supplying
the omissions therein, are given. Examples are the Varttikas of Katyayana on Panini’s
Sutras, of Suresvara on Sankara’s Upanishad-Bhashyas, and of Kumarila Bhatta on the
Sabara-Bhashya on the Karma-Mimamsa.
Vyakhyana or Tika
A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in the
original, with little elucidations here and there. A Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya,
deals with eight different modes of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha,
Sandhi, Alankara, Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit
Sahitya Sastra. An Anu-Vyakhyana—like the one written by Sri Madhva—is a
repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An Anuvada is merely a
running translation or statement of an abstruse text of the original. Tika is only another
name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas,
especially on Sankara’s Brahmasutra-Bhashya.
Tippani
Tippani is just like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti. It is an
explanation of difficult words or phrases occurring in the original. Examples are
Kaiyata’s gloss on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Nagojibhatta’s gloss on
Kaiyata’s gloss, or Appayya’s gloss on Amalananda’s gloss on the Bhamati of
Vachaspati Misra.
Other Scriptures
The Tevaram and the Tiruvachakam which are the hymns of the Saiva saints of South
India, the Divya-Prabandham of the Alvar saints of South India, the songs of Kabir, the
Abhangas of Tukaram and the Ramayana of Tulasi Das—all of which are the outpourings
of great realised souls—are wonderful scriptures. They contain the essence of the
Vedas.
The Secular Writings
The Subhashitas
The Subhashitas are wise sayings, instructions and stories, either in poetry or in
prose. Examples are Bhartrihari’s three centuries of verses, the
Subhashita-Ratna-Bhandagara and Somadeva Bhatta’s Katha-Sarit-Sagara or
Kshemendra’s Brihat-Katha-Manjari. The Panchatantra and the Hitopadesa also belong to
this category.
The Kavyas
These are highly scholarly compositions in poetry, prose or both. The greatest of
poetical Kavyas are those of Kalidas (The Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava), Bharavi
(The Kiratarjuniya), Magha (The Sisupalavadha), Sri Harsha (The
Naishadha). The best prose Kavyas in the whole of Sanskrit literature were written by
Bhattabana (The Kadambari and Harshacharita), the great genius in classical
Sanskrit. Among those containing both poetry and prose, the Champu-Ramayana and the
Champu-Bharata are most famous. These are all wonderful masterpieces which will ever
remain to glorify India’s literary calibre.
The Natakas
These are marvellously scholastic dramas embodying the Rasas of Sringara, Vira,
Karuna, Adbhuta, Hasya, Bhayanaka, Bibhatsa and Raudra. It is told that none can write on
the ninth Rasa, viz., Santi. It is attainable only on final Liberation. The best dramas
are written by Kalidasa (Sakuntala), Bhavabhuti (Uttara-Rama-Charita), and
Visakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa).
The Alankaras
These are grand rhetorical texts, treating of the science of perfection and beauty of
ornamental language and of effective composition with elegance and force, both in poetry
and in prose. These are the fundamentals of Sanskrit Sahitya, even superior to the Kavyas
and the Natakas. The best Alankara-Granthas are those of Mammata (Kavyaprakasa) and
Jagannatha (Rasagangadhara).
Conclusion
These constitute the entirety of Sanskrit literature—sacred and secular. The
Sruti is the root; the Smritis, Itihasas and Puranas are the trunk; the Agamas and
Darsanas are the branches; and the Subhashitas, Kavyas, Natakas and Alankaras are the
flowers of the tree of India’s Culture.
The Smritis, the Itihasas, the Puranas, the Agamas and the Darsanas are only
developments of the Veda. Their ultimate source is the Veda. Their one common aim is to
enable man to annihilate his ignorance and attain perfection, freedom, immortality and
eternal bliss through knowledge of God or the Eternal. Their purpose is to make man like
God and one with Him.
CHAPTER 3
HINDU DHARMA
Silent adorations to the Lord, the Embodiment of Dharma, the Controller and
Protector of Dharma and the Fountain-head of Dharma.
What is Dharma? Dharma is so called, because it holds; Dharma alone holds the
people, etc. The word Dharma is derived from the root Dhr—to
hold—and its etymological meaning is ‘that which holds’ this world, or the
people of the world, or the whole creation from the microcosm to the macrocosm. It is the
eternal Divine Law of the Lord. The entire creation is held together and sustained by the
All-powerful Law of God. Practice of Dharma, therefore, means recognition of this Law and
abidance by it.
That which brings well-being to man is Dharma. Dharma supports this world. The people
are upheld by Dharma. That which secures preservation of beings is Dharma. Dharma leads to
eternal happiness and immortality.
That which is Dharma is verily the Truth. Therefore, whosoever speaks the truth is said
to speak Dharma, and whosoever speaks Dharma is said to speak the truth. One and the same
thing becomes both.
Dharma includes all external deeds, as well as thoughts and other mental practices
which tend to elevate the character of man. Dharma comes from the Divine and leads you to
the Divine.
Definition Of Dharma
No language is perfect. There is no proper equivalent word in English for the
Sanskrit term Dharma. It is very difficult to define Dharma.
Dharma is generally defined as ‘righteousness’ or ‘duty.’ Dharma is
the principle of righteousness. It is the principle of holiness. It is also the principle
of unity. Bhishma says in his instructions to Yudhishthira that whatever creates conflict
is Adharma, and whatever puts an end to conflict and brings about unity and harmony is
Dharma. Anything that helps to unite all and develop pure divine love and universal
brotherhood, is Dharma. Anything that creates discord, split and disharmony and foments
hatred, is Adharma. Dharma is the cementer and sustainer of social life. The rules of
Dharma have been laid down for regulating the worldly affairs of men. Dharma brings as its
consequence happiness, both in this world and in the next. Dharma is the means of
preserving one’s self. If you transgress it, it will kill you. If you protect it, it
will protect you. It is your sole companion after death. It is the sole refuge of
humanity.
That which elevates one is Dharma. This is another definition. Dharma is that which
leads you to the path of perfection and glory. Dharma is that which helps you to have
direct communion with the Lord. Dharma is that which makes you divine. Dharma is the
ascending stairway unto God. Self-realisation is the highest Dharma. Dharma is the heart
of Hindu ethics. God is the centre of Dharma.
Dharma means Achara or the regulation of daily life. Achara is the supreme
Dharma. It is the basis of Tapas or austerity. It leads to wealth, beauty, longevity and
continuity of lineage. Evil conduct and immorality will lead to ill-fame, sorrow, disease
and premature death. Dharma has its root in morality and the controller of Dharma is God
Himself.
Maharshi Jaimini defines Dharma as that which is enjoined by the Vedas and is not
ultimately productive of suffering.
Rishi Kanada, founder of the Vaiseshika system of philosophy, has given the best
definition of Dharma, in his Vaiseshika Sutras: “Yato-bhyudayanihsreyasa-siddhih
sa dharmah.” “That which leads to the attainment of Abhyudaya (prosperity
in this world) and Nihsreyasa (total cessation of pain and attainment of eternal
bliss hereafter) is Dharma.”
The Sole Authority Of The Vedas
The four Vedas, the Smriti texts, the behaviour of those who have entered into
their spirit and act according to their injunctions, the conduct of holy men and
satisfaction of one’s own self—these are the bases of Dharma, according to Manu.
In the matter of Dharma, the Vedas are the ultimate authority. You cannot know the
truth about Dharma through any source of knowledge other than the Vedas. Reason cannot be
the authority in the matter of Dharma. Among the scriptures of the world, the Vedas are
the oldest. This is supported by all leading scholars and antiquarians of the entire
civilised world. They all declare with one voice, that of all books so far written in any
human language, the Rig-Veda Samhita is undoubtedly the oldest. No antiquarian has been
able to fix the date when the Rig-Veda Samhita was composed or came to light.
The Changing Dharma
Just as a doctor prescribes different medicines for different people according to
their constitution and the nature of their disease, so also Hinduism prescribes different
duties for different people. Rules for women are different from the rules for men. The
rules for different Varnas and Asramas vary. But, non-violence, truth, non-stealing,
cleanliness and control of the senses, are the duties common to all men.
Dharma depends upon time, circumstances, age, degree of evolution and the community to
which one belongs. The Dharma of this century is different from that of the tenth century.
There are conditions under which Dharma may change its usual course. Apad-Dharma is
such a deviation from the usual practice. This is allowed only in times of extreme
distress or calamity.
What is Dharma in one set of circumstances becomes Adharma in another set of
circumstances. That is the reason why it is said that the secret of Dharma is extremely
profound and subtle. Lord Krishna says in the Gita: “Let the scriptures be the
authority in determining what ought to be done and what ought not to be done” (Ch.
XVI, 24). The truth of Dharma lies hidden. Srutis and Smritis are many. The way of Dharma
open to all is that which a great realised soul has traversed.
Dharma In Other Religions
All other religions also lay stress on Dharma. Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity,
Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Islam are all remarkably alive to its value. Plato, Socrates,
Aristotle, Kant, Swedenborg and Spinoza are all striking examples in the interesting
history of Western philosophy for the high pedestal on which they have placed morality,
duty and righteousness, and adored them all as the only means to the attainment of the
goal of life. Each religion lays greater stress on certain aspects of Dharma.
Benefits Of The Practice Of Dharma
Of the four grand objects of human aspiration—Purusharthas—viz.,
Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, Dharma is given the foremost rank in the
scriptures. Dharma alone is the gateway to Moksha, to immortality, infinite bliss, supreme
peace and highest knowledge. Dharma alone is the primary Purushartha. Dharma is the first
and foremost Purushartha. Through the practice of Dharma alone can you ever hope to
achieve the crowning glory of all human endeavours, viz., Moksha which is the best and the
highest of all desirable things.
Practice of Dharma leads to the perfect realisation of essential unity or the final
end, the highest good, namely, Moksha. The practitioner experiences peace, joy, strength
and tranquillity within himself. His life becomes thoroughly disciplined. His powers and
capacities are exceedingly intensified. He realises that there is one underlying
homogeneous essence, a living truth, behind these names and forms. He is transmuted into
divinity. His whole nature gets transformed. He becomes one with the Eternal. He beholds
Brahman above, Brahman below, Brahman to the right, Brahman to the left, Brahman in front,
Brahman at the back, Brahman within, Brahman without and Brahman pervading the whole
world.
Kinds Of Dharma
Dharma can be classified under two heads: (i) Samanya or the general,
universal Dharma and (ii) Visesha or the specific, personal Dharma. Contentment,
forgiveness, self-restraint, non-stealing, purity, control of senses, discrimination
between right and wrong, between the real and the unreal, spiritual knowledge,
truthfulness and absence of anger come under the general or universal Dharma. The rules of
the castes and orders of life are specific Dharmas. These are the tenfold characteristics
of Dharma according to Manu.
Dharma assumes various kinds: Sanatana Dharma (Eternal Law), Samanya Dharma (general
duty), Visesha Dharma (special duty), Varnasrama Dharma (duties of Caste and Order),
Svadharma (one’s own duty), Yuga Dharma (duty of the Age), Kula Dharma (duty of
family), Manava Dharma (duty of man), Purusha Dharma (duty of male), Stri Dharma (duty of
female), Raja Dharma (duty of king), Praja Dharma (duty of subjects), Pravritti Dharma
(duty in worldly life) and Nivritti Dharma (duty in spiritual life).
Sanatana Dharma
Sanatana Dharma means the Eternal Religion, the Ancient Law. This is based on the
Vedas. This is the oldest of living religions. Hinduism is known by the name Sanatana
Dharma. What the Vedas alone declare to be the means of attaining the summum bonum or
the final emancipation, is the Sanatana Dharma or Hindu Dharma.
The foundation of Sanatana Dharma is Sruti; Smritis are the walls; the Itihasas and
Purnas are the buttresses or supports. In ancient times, the Srutis were learnt by heart.
The teacher sang them to his pupils and the pupils sang them after him. They were not
written in book form. All the sects, all the philosophical systems, appeal to the Sruti as
the final authority. The Smriti stands next in authority to the Sruti.
Hinduism stands unrivalled in the depth and grandeur of its philosophy. Its ethical
teachings are lofty, unique and sublime. It is highly flexible and adapted to every human
need. It is a perfect religion by itself. It is not in need of anything from any other
religion. No other religion has produced so many great saints, great patriots, great
warriors and great Pativratas. The more you know of it, the more you will honour and love
it. The more you study it, the more it will enlighten you and satisfy your heart.
India—The Home Of Religions
The religious history of the world tells us that from time immemorial, India has been
the home of great sages, seers and Rishis. All the grand religious ideals that have
moulded the character of men, the loftiest of ethics and morality that have raised human
beings to magnanimous heights of divine splendour and all the sublime truths of
spirituality that have made men divine and have moulded the spiritual ideals of nations
and saviours of mankind, first arose in India. The spiritual horizon of India has always
been illumined with the glory of the self-effulgent sun of wisdom of the Upanishads.
Whenever there was any upheaval in any part of the world, the origin of this could be
traced to the wave of spirituality caused by the birth of a great soul—a special
manifestation of Divinity—in some part of India.
Hindus have had a culture, civilisation and religion millennia older than those of any
other country or people. God did speak to the world through India’s Rishis, Yogins,
Mahatmas, Alvars, prophets, Acharyas, Sannyasins and saints. Their teachings and Puranas
are really inspired. God is the one Light and Truth from whom emanate the teachings of all
faiths.
India is the home and abode of religions. It occupies the proud first place in
religious devotion and godliness. It is famous for its Yogins and saints. The goal of
India is Self-realisation or attainment of God-consciousness, through renunciation. The
history of India is a history of religion. Its social code and regulations are founded
upon religion. Minus its Yoga, religion and its regulations, India will not be what it has
been for millennia. Some Hindus are still not aware of the distinguishing features of
Sanatana Dharma. If every Hindu knew and understood what Hinduism is, the Hindus of today
would all be gods on this earth.
May you all be endowed with the knowledge of Sanatana Dharma! May you all endeavour to
protect the Eternal Dharma! May the secrets of Sanatana Dharma be revealed unto you all,
like a fruit in the palm of your hand, through the Grace of the Lord! May the blessings of
Rishis be upon you all! Glory to the Vedas and Sanatana Dharma! Glory to Brahman, the
source for all Vedas and Sanatana Dharma!
Samanya Dharma
Every religion has a generic form or Samanya-Rupa and a specific form or Visesha-Rupa.
The general form remains eternally the same. It is never changed by any circumstance
whatsoever. It is not affected at all by changes of time, place, surroundings and
individual differences. This aspect of religion is called Sanatana or eternal. That which
changes according to the change of time, place and surrounding circumstances is the
external aspect or ritual, of Dharma.
Samanya Dharma is the general Dharma or law for all men. Varnasrama Dharmas are special
Dharmas which are to be practised by particular castes and by men in particular stages of
life. The Samanya Dharmas must be practised by all, irrespective of distinctions of Varna
and Asrama, creed or colour. Goodness is not the property of any one class, creed, sect or
community. Every man should possess this virtue.
Fundamentals Of Dharma
THE VISHNU SAMHITA enumerates forgiveness, truthfulness, control of the mind, purity,
practice of charity, control of the senses, non-violence, service of the Guru, visiting
places of pilgrimage, compassion, simplicity, absence of greed, worship of the gods and
the Brahmanas, and absence of malice as the ingredients of Samanya Dharma, the general law
for all men.
THE MAHABHARATA enumerates the performance of Sraaddha or offering oblations to the
forefathers, religious austerity, truth, restraint of anger, satisfaction with one’s
own wife, purity, learning, absence of envy, knowledge of the Self and forbearance as the
fundamentals of Dharma.
It is said in PADMA PURANA that Dharma proceeds from continence, truthfulness,
austerity, charity, self-control, forbearance, purity, non-violence, serenity and
non-thieving and that one should recognise Dharma by these ten factors. According to this
Purana, bestowing gifts on deserving persons, fixing one’s thoughts on Lord Krishna,
adoration of one’s parents, offering a portion of the daily meal to all creatures and
giving a morsel of food to a cow are the characteristics of Dharma.
According to MATSYA PURANA, freedom from malice, absence of covetousness, control of
the senses, austerity, celibacy, compassion, truthfulness, forbearance and fortitude
constitute the fundamentals of Sanatana Dharma.
PATANJALI MAHARSHI, the exponent of Raja Yoga philosophy, recommends that ten virtues
should be practised by all men. The first five are: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya
(truthfulness), Brahmacharya (celibacy in thought, word and deed), Asteya (non-stealing)
and Aparigraha (non-covetousness). These constitute Yama or self-restraint. The other five
virtues are: Saucha (internal and external purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas
(austerity), Svadhyaya (study of scriptures or recitation of Mantra) and Isvara-pranidhana
(consecration of the fruits of all works to the Lord). These constitute Niyama or
religious observance.
THE GITA enumerates the following virtues as Daivi-Sampat or divine qualities:
fearlessness, cleanness of life, steadfastness in the Yoga of Wisdom, alms-giving,
self-restraint, sacrifice, study of the scriptures, austerity, straightforwardness,
harmlessness, truth, absence of wrath, renunciation, peacefulness, absence of crookedness,
compassion to living beings, non-covetousness, mildness, modesty, absence of fickleness,
vigour, forgiveness, fortitude, purity and absence of envy and pride. All these virtues
are manifestations of the four fundamental virtues: (i) non-violence, (ii) truth, (iii)
purity and (iv) self-control. All the above virtues come under the above four cardinal
virtues. The virtues that are enumerated under the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism and
the virtues prescribed by Lord Jesus in his Sermon on the Mount, also come under the above
fundamental virtues.
The development of the divine qualities is indispensable for the attainment of
Self-realisation. Brahman or the Eternal is purity. The Eternal cannot be attained without
the attainment of purity. Brahman is truth. The Eternal cannot be attained without
practising truth. Brahman is fearlessness. The Eternal cannot be attained unless you
become absolutely fearless. Attachment to the body causes fear and Dehadhyasa. If only you
become fearless, then the identification with the body will vanish.
You have rendered the heart harder than flint, steel or diamond through greed,
miserliness, harshness and rudeness. You can soften it only through the practice of mercy,
sympathy, charity, generosity, magnanimity, harmlessness, mildness, disinterested action
and untiring service of the poor. You have made the heart crooked and narrow through
hypocrisy, untruthfulness, backbiting and talebearing. You can expand it through the
practice of straightforwardness, truthfulness, cleanness of life, alms-giving and
non-covetousness. You have rendered the heart impure through lust. You can purify it
through the practice of celibacy in thought, word and deed.
Non violence
Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important virtue. That is the reason why Patanjali
Maharshi has placed it first in Yama. Practice of Ahimsa must be in thought, word and
deed. Practice of Ahimsa is not impotence or cowardice or weakness. It is the highest type
of heroism. The practice demands immense patience, forbearance and endurance, infinite
inner spiritual strength and gigantic will-power.
Ahimsa is a modification or expression of truth only. Satyam and Ahimsa always go
together. He who is established in Ahimsa can move the whole world. In his presence, all
hostilities vanish; lion and cow, cobra and mongoose, live together peacefully.
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism lay great stress on Ahimsa. Lord Jesus also has
emphasised much on Ahimsa in his Sermon on the Mount. He says: “If anyone beats you
on one cheek, show him the other cheek also.”
He who is firmly established in Ahimsa can hope to attain Self-realisation. He who
practises Ahimsa develops cosmic love to a maximum degree. Practice of Ahimsa eventually
leads to realisation of oneness or unity of Self. Such a man only can attain
self-restraint. Retaliation—tooth for tooth, blow for blow—is the maxim,
doctrine or principle of an Asura or a man of diabolic nature. This belongs to the beastly
nature. To return good for evil is divine. Constant vigilance and alertness are needed in
the practice of Ahimsa. If you are careless even a bit, you will be carried away by the
force of previous wrong Samskaras and impulses and will become a victim of Himsa, despite
your good intentions.
Truth
Brahman is Sat or Existence-Absolute. Truth must be observed in thought, word and deed.
If you are established in truth, all other virtues will cling to you by themselves.
Harischandra sacrificed everything for the sake of truth. He lives still in our hearts.
Yudhishthira was also devoted to truth. There is no virtue higher than truth. Practice of
truth and Ahimsa constitute the crown and glory of ethical life. In the Taittiriya
Upanishad, the preceptor says in his convocation address to the students: “Satyam
vada—Speak the truth.” The world is rooted in truth. Dharma is rooted in
truth. All religions are rooted in truth. Honesty, justice, straightforwardness and
sincerity are only modifications or expressions of truth.
Purity
Purity comprises both external purity and internal purity. Purity implies both purity
of body and purity of mind. Purity of body is only the preliminary to purity of mind.
This body is the temple of God. It should be kept clean by daily bathing and clean
dress. Cleanliness is a part of godliness.
The restriction in diet is best calculated to make the mind pure. Food exercises a
direct influence on the mind.
Sattvic food makes the mind pure. Purity of food leads to purity of mind. Mind is only
made up of the fine essence of food. As the food is, so is the mind.
You must be pure in thought, word and deed. Your heart must be as pure as crystal or
the Himalayan snow. Then only the divine light will descend. Purity comprises such virtues
as frankness, innocence, straightforwardness and absence of all evil thoughts. He who is
endowed with purity will find it easy to tread the spiritual path.
Self-control
You must have perfect self-control or self-mastery. Self-control implies both control
of the body and control of the mind. Self-control does not mean self-torture. You must
lead a well-regulated and disciplined life. You must keep all the senses under your
perfect control. The senses are like turbulent and wild horses. This body is like a
chariot. Mind is the reins. Intellect is the driver. The Atman is the Lord of the chariot.
If the senses are not kept under proper control, they will throw this chariot into a deep
abyss. You will come to ruin. He who keeps the reins firm and drives this chariot
intelligently by controlling the horses (senses), will reach the destination (Moksha or
the Abode of Eternal Bliss) safely.
Self-control implies self-sacrifice, annihilation of egoism, patience, endurance,
forbearance and humility. Overcome Raga or attachment by Vairagya or dispassion.
Dispassion will dawn in your mind if you look into the defects of sensual life such as
birth, death, disease, old age, pain, sorrow, etc. (Mithya-Drishti and Dosha-Drishti).
Overcome anger and hatred by Kshama or forgiveness, love and selfless service. Overcome
evil by good. Return good for evil. Overcome lust by the practice of Brahmacharya and
regular Japa and meditation. Conquer greed by charity, generosity and disinterested
actions. Conquer pride by humility and delusion by discrimination and enquiry. Overcome
jealousy by magnanimity, Atma-bhava and nobility. Conquer egoism by self-sacrifice,
self-surrender, self-abnegation and meditation on the non-dual, eternal, self-luminous
Brahman, the innermost Self, the Inner Ruler, the Immortal.
May you all attain eternal bliss and immortality through the practice of the cardinal
virtues or the fundamental Dharma.
Varnasrama Dharma
The principle of Varnasrama Dharma is one of the basic principles of Hinduism. The
Varnasrama system is peculiar to Hindus. It is a characteristic feature of Hinduism. It is
also prevalent throughout the world according to Guna-Karma (aptitude and conduct), though
there is no such distinct denomination of this kind, elsewhere.
The duties of the castes are Varna Dharma. The four castes are Brahmana, Kshatriya,
Vaisya and Sudra. The duties of the stages in life are Asrama Dharma. The four Asramas or
orders of life are Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sannyasa.
The Principle
Human society is like a huge machine. The individuals and communities are like its
parts. If the parts are weak and broken, the machine will not work. A machine is nothing
without its parts. The human body also can work efficiently if its parts and organs are in
sound and strong condition. If there is pain in any part of the body, if there is disease
in any organ or part of the body, this human machine will go out of order. It will not
perform its usual function or work.
So is the case with the human society. Every individual should perform his duties
efficiently. The Hindu Rishis and sages formed an ideal scheme of society and an ideal way
of individual life, which is known by the name Varnasrama Dharma. Hinduism is built on
Varnasrama Dharma. The structure of the Hindu society is based on Varnasrama Dharma.
Observance of Varnasrama Dharma helps one’s growth and self-evolution. It is very
indispensable. If the rules are violated, the society will soon perish.
The aim of Varnasrama Dharma is to promote the development of the universal, eternal
Dharma. If you defend Dharma, it will defend you. If you destroy it, it will destroy you.
Therefore, never destroy your Dharma. This principle holds true of the individual as much
as of the nation. It is Dharma alone which keeps a nation alive. Dharma is the very soul
of man. Dharma is the very soul of a nation also.
In the West and in the whole world also, there is Varnasrama, though it is not rigidly
observed there. Some Western philosophers have made a division of three classes, viz.,
philosophers, warriors and masses. The philosophers correspond to the Brahmanas, warriors
to Kshatriyas and the masses to Vaisyas and Sudras. This system is indispensable to keep
the society in a state of perfect harmony and order.
The Four Castes
In Purusha-Sukta of the Rig-Veda, there is reference to the division of Hindu society
into four classes. It is described there that the Brahmanas came out of the face of the
Lord, the Creator, Kshatriyas from His arms, Vaisyas from His thighs, and the Sudras from
His feet.
This division is according to the Guna and Karma. Guna (quality) and Karma (kind of
work) determine the caste of a man. This is supported by Lord Krishna in the Gita, also.
He says in the Gita: “The four castes were emanated by Me, by the different
distribution of qualities and actions. Know Me to be the author of them, though the
actionless and inexhaustible” (Ch. IV-13).
There are three qualities or Gunas, viz., Sattva (purity), Rajas (passion)
and Tamas (inertia). Sattva is white, Rajas is red and Tamas is black. These three
qualities are found in man in varying proportions. Sattva preponderates in some persons.
They are Brahmanas. They are wise persons or thinkers. They are the priests, ministers or
philosophers who guide kings or rulers. In some, Rajas is predominant. They are
Kshatriyas. They are warriors or men of action. They fight with the enemies or invaders
and defend the country. In some, Tamas is predominant. They are Vaisyas or traders. They
do business and agriculture and amass wealth. Sudras are the servants. None of these
qualities is highly developed in them. They serve the other three castes.
In a broad sense, a Sattvic man, who is pious and virtuous and leads the divine life,
is a Brahmana, a Rajasic man with heroic quality is a Kshatriya, a Rajasic man with
business tendencies is a Vaisya and a Tamasic man is a Sudra. Hitler and Mussolini were
Kshatriyas. Ford was a Vaisya.
Serenity, self-restraint, austerity, purity, forgiveness, and also, uprightness,
knowledge, Realisation and belief in God are the duties of the Brahmanas, born of (their
own) nature. Prowess, splendour, firmness, dexterity, and also, not flying from battle,
generosity and lordliness are the duties of the Kshatriyas, born of (their own) nature.
Agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade are the duties of the Vaisyas, born of (their own)
nature. And action consisting of service is the duty of the Sudras, born of (their own)
nature.
The Law of Spiritual Economics
The underlying principle in caste system or Varna Dharma, is division of labour. Rishis
studied human nature carefully. They came to the conclusion that all men were not equally
fit for all kinds of work. Hence, they found it necessary to allocate different kinds of
duties to different classes of people, according to their aptitude, capacity or quality.
The Brahmanas were in charge of spiritual and intellectual affairs. The work of political
administration and defence was given to the Kshatriyas. The Vaisyas were entrusted with
the duty of supplying food for the nation and administering its economic welfare. The
Sudras did menial work. The Rishis felt all these needs of the Hindu nation and started
the system of Varnas and Asramas.
This division of labour began in Vedic times. The Vedas taught that the Brahmana was
the brain of the society, the Kshatriya its arms, the Vaisya its stomach, and the Sudra
its feet.
There was a quarrel between the senses, the mind and the Prana as to who was superior.
There was a quarrel amongst the different organs and the stomach. If the hands quarrel
with the stomach; the entire body will suffer. When Prana departed from the body, all the
organs suffered. The head or stomach cannot claim its superiority over the feet and hands.
The hands and feet are as much important as the stomach or head. If there is quarrel
between the different castes as to which is superior, then the entire social fabric will
suffer. There will be disharmony, rupture and discord. A scavenger and a barber are as
much important as a minister for the running of the society. The social edifice is built
on the law of spiritual economics. It has nothing to do with superiority or inferiority.
Each class contributes its best to the common weal or world-solidarity. There is no
question of higher and lower here.
Character Determines Caste
A Brahmana is no Brahmana if he is not endowed with purity and good character, and if
he leads a life of dissipation and immorality. A Sudra is a Brahmana if he leads a
virtuous and pious life. What a great soul was Vidura! What a noble, candid,
straightforward student was Satyakama Jabala of Chhandogya Upanishad! Caste is a question
of character. Varna is no more the colour of the skin, but the colour of one’s
character or quality. Conduct and character count and not lineage alone. If one is
Brahmana by birth and, at the same time, if he possesses the virtues of a Brahmana, it is
extremely good, because certain virtuous qualifications only determine the birth of a
Brahmana.
Use and Abuse of the Caste System
The Hindus have survived many a foreign conquest on account of their caste system. But
they have developed class jealousies and hatred in the name of the caste system. They have
not got the spirit of co-operation. That is the reason why they are weak and disunited
today. They have become sectarians in the name of the caste system. Hence there is
degradation in India.
The caste system is, indeed, a splendid thing. It is quite flawless. But the defect
came in from somewhere else. The classes gradually neglected their duties. The test of
ability and character slowly vanished. Birth became the chief consideration in determining
castes. All castes fell from their ideals and forgot all about their duties. Brahmanas
became selfish and claimed superiority over others by mere birth, without possessing due
qualifications. The Kshatriyas lost their chivalry and spirit of sacrifice. The Vaisyas
became very greedy. They did not earn wealth by honest means. They did not look after the
economic welfare of the people. They did not give charity. They also lost the spirit of
sacrifice. Sudras gave up service. They became officers. They wished that others should
serve them. The greed and pride of man have created discord and disharmony.
There is nothing wrong in Varnasrama. It is arrogance and haughtiness in men that have
brought troubles. Man or the little Jiva is imperfect. He is full of defects. He is simply
waiting for claiming superiority over others. The Brahmana thinks that the other three
castes are inferior to him. The Kshatriya thinks that the Vaisya and Sudra are inferior to
him. A rich Sudra thinks that he is superior to a poor Brahmana or a poor Kshatriya or
Vaisya.
At the present moment, the Varnasrama system exists in name only. It has to be rebuilt
properly. Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras, who have fallen from their ideals and
who are not doing their respective duties, must do their respective duties properly. They
must be educated on right lines. They must raise themselves to their original lofty level.
The sectarian spirit must die. They should develop a new understanding heart of love and
devotion, with a spirit of co-operation, sacrifice and service.
The Four Asramas
There are four Asramas or stages in life, viz., Brahmacharya or the period of
studentship, Grihastha or the stage of the householder, Vanaprastha or the stage of the
forest-dweller or hermit, and Sannyasa or the life of renunciation or asceticism. Each
stage has its own duties. These stages help the evolution of man. The four Asramas take
man to perfection by successive stages. The practice of the four Asramas regulates the
life from the beginning to the end. The first two Asramas pertain to Pravritti Marga or
the path of work and the two later stages—the life of Vanaprastha and that of
Sannyasa—are the stages of withdrawal from the world. They pertain to Nivritti Marga
or the path of renunciation.
Towards Orderly Spiritual Evolution
Life is very systematically and orderly arranged in Sanatana Dharma. There is
opportunity for the development of the different sides of human activity. Due occupations
and training are assigned to each period of life. Life is a great school in which the
powers, capacities and faculties of man are to be evolved gradually.
Every man should pass through the different Asramas regularly. He should not enter any
stage of life prematurely. He can enter the next stage, only when each has been completed.
In nature, evolution is gradual. It is not revolutionary.
Lord Manu says in his Smriti: “Having studied the Vedas or two Vedas or even one
Veda in due order without breaking celibacy, let him dwell in the householder order. When
the householder sees wrinkles in his skin and whiteness in his hair and the son of his
son, then let him retire to the forest. Having passed the third portion of life in the
forests, let him, having abandoned attachments, wander as an ascetic in the fourth portion
of life.”
In extraordinary cases, however, some of the stages may be omitted. Suka was a born
Sannyasin. Sankara took Sannyasa without entering the stage of a householder. In rare and
exceptional cases, a student is allowed to become a Sannyasin, his debts to the world
having been fully paid in a previous birth. Nowadays, young Sannyasins without
qualification are found in abundance. This is contrary to the ancient rules and causes
much trouble.
The Brahmacharin or the Celibate Student
The first stage, Brahmacharya, is the period of study and discipline. The student
should not indulge in any pleasures. He stays in the house of his preceptor and studies
the Vedas and the sciences. This is the period of probation. The teachers in ancient India
usually lived in forest hermitages. These hermitages were the Gurukulas or forest
universities. The student begged his food. The children of the rich and poor lived
together. The student regarded his teacher as his spiritual father and served him with
faith, devotion and reverence.
The life of the student begins with the Upanayana ceremony, his second birth. He must
be hardy and simple in his habits. He rises early, bathes and does Sandhya and Gayatri
Japa. He studies scriptures. He takes simple food in moderation and takes plenty of
exercise. He sleeps on a hard mat and does not use soft beds and pillows. He is humble and
obedient. He serves and respects elders. He attempts to be chaste in thought, word and
deed.
He ever engages himself in doing services to his preceptor. He refrains from wine,
meat, perfumes, garlands, tasty and savoury dishes, women, acids, spices and injury to
sentient creatures; from lust, anger, greed; dancing, singing and playing on musical
instruments; from dice-playing, gossip, slander and untruth. He sleeps alone.
After the end of his student career, he gives a present to his preceptor according to
his ability and returns home to enter the household life. The preceptor gives the final
instruction and sends the student home. The teacher delivers a convocation address to the
students at the conclusion of their studentship:
“Speak the truth. Do your duty. Never swerve from the study of the Veda. Do not
cut off the line of progeny (after giving the preceptor the fee he desires). Never swerve
away from truth. Never swerve from duty. Never neglect your welfare. Never neglect your
prosperity. Never neglect the study and the teaching of the Vedas.
“Never swerve from the duties to the gods and the forefathers. Regard your mother
as a god (Matridevo Bhava). Regard your father as a god (Pitridevo Bhava). Regard
your teacher as a god (Acharyadevo Bhava). Regard your guest as god (Atithidevo
Bhava). Let only those actions that are free from blemishes be done and not others.
Only those that are good acts to us should be performed by you and not others.
“You should remove the fatigue of Brahmanas who are superior to you by serving
them with seats, etc. Gift should be given with faith, in plenty, with modesty and
sympathy. If there be any doubt regarding rites or conduct, then look up to the lives of
great men and follow their examples. This is the injunction. This is the teaching. This is
the secret of the Vedas. This is God’s word of command. This should be observed. Thus
is this to be meditated upon.”
The Grihastha or the Householder
The second stage is that of the Grihastha or householder. The household stage is
entered at marriage, when the student has completed his studentship and is ready to take
up the duties and responsibilities of householder life. Of all the Asramas, this is the
most important, because it supports all the others. As all creatures live supported by the
air, so the other Orders exist supported by the householder. As all streams and rivers
flow to rest in the ocean, so all the Asramas flow to rest in the householder. The
Grihastha is the very heart of Aryan life. Everything depends on him.
Marriage is a sacrament for a Hindu. The wife is his partner in life. She is his
Ardhangini. He cannot do any religious ritual without her. She stands by his left side
when he performs any religious performance. Husband and wife keep Rama and Sita as their
ideal.
A householder should earn money by honest means and distribute it in the proper manner.
He should spend one-tenth of his income in charity. He should enjoy sensual pleasures
within the limits of the moral law. A householder is permitted to enjoy conjugal happiness
on one night in a month.
The householder should perform the Pancha Maha Yajnas. The five Yajnas are:
DEVA-YAJNA—offering oblations unto Devas, with recitation of Vedic Mantras.
RISHI-YAJNA—study of Vedas and teaching of Vedas to students, and offering of
oblations to Rishis.
PITRI-YAJNA—Tarpana or ablutions to departed souls and Sraaddha or annual
religious rites performed for departed souls.
BHUTA-YAJNA—distribution of food to cows, crows and animals in general.
ATITHI-YAJNA—giving food to guests and honouring them.
Hospitality is one of the householder’s chief duties. He must ever feed first his
guests, Brahmanas and his relatives, and then he and his wife should eat.
When the householder sees that his sons are able to bear the burden of his duties, when
his grandsons are around him, he should know that the time has come for him and his wife
to retire from the world and spend their time in study and meditation.
The Vanaprastha or the Recluse
The next stage is that of the Varnaprastha. Brahmacharya is a preparation for the life
of the householder. Even so, Vanaprastha is a preparation for the final stage of Sannyasa.
After discharging all the duties of a householder, he should retire to the forest or a
solitary country place and begin to meditate in solitude on higher spiritual things. He is
now free from social bonds and the responsibilities of life. He has ample time for study
of scriptures. His wife may go with him or remain with her sons.
The Sannyasin or the Renunciate
The next stage is that of a Sannyasin. When a man becomes a Sannyasin, he renounces all
possessions, all distinctions of caste, all rites and ceremonies and all attachments to
any particular country, nation, or religion. He lives alone and spends his time in
meditation. He lives on alms. When he attains the sublime state of deep meditation he
rejoices in his own Self. He is quite indifferent to sensual pleasures. He is free from
likes and dislikes, desires, egoism, lust, anger, greed and pride. He has equal vision and
balanced mind. He loves all. He roams about happily and disseminates Brahma Jnana or
Knowledge of the Self. He is the same in honour and dishonour, praise and censure, success
and failure. He is now Ativarnasrami, i.e., above Varna and Asrama. He is quite a
free man. He is not bound by any social customs and conventions.
Such a Sannyasin is an ideal man. He has attained perfection and freedom. He is Brahman
Himself. He is a Jivanmukta or a liberated sage. Glory to such exalted personages who are
living Gods on earth!
Asrama Dharma Under Modern Conditions
At the present moment, the Asramas cannot be exactly lived according to the details of
the ancient rules, as the conditions have changed very much; but, they may be revived in
their spirit, to the great improvement of modern life. In these stages, no one should do
the duty of another. The student or Brahmachari should not do the duties of a householder,
a recluse or a Sannyasin. The householder must not perform the duties of a Brahmacharin,
Vanaprastha or a Sannyasin. A Sannyasin should not seek again the joys of the householder.
Peace and order will prevail in society, only if and when all people do their
respective duties efficiently. The abolition of Varnas and Asramas will cut at the very
root of social duties. How can the nation hope to live when Varnasrama Dharma is not
rigidly practised?
The students of schools, and colleges should lead a life of purity and simple living.
The householder should lead the life of an ideal Grihastha. He should practise
self-restraint, mercy, tolerance, non-injury, truthfulness and moderation in everything.
Those who find it difficult to lead the life of the third and the fourth Asramas should,
remaining in either of the other two Asramas, gradually withdraw themselves from worldly
life and practise selfless service, study and meditation.
The Highest State
Varnasrama pertains to body alone, but not to the pure, all-pervading, immortal soul or
Atman. Attain Knowledge of the Self and become an Ativarnasrami like Lord Dattatreya. Hear
what he says:—
Mahadadi jagat sarvam
Na kinchit pratibhati me
Brahmaiva kevalam sarvam
Katham varnasramasthitih
“The whole world, from Mahat downwards, does not shine in Me. Everything is
Brahman only. Where then is Varnasrama?”
May you all have comprehensive understanding of Varnasrama Dharma! May you all develop
universal love and brotherhood! May all barriers which are made by man for his own
self-aggrandisement and self-assertion and which create discord and disunion, be broken
asunder!
Yuga Dharma
In Satya-Yuga or the golden age there was a different set of Dharmas or laws; in
Treta, they changed into another form; in Dvapara, the Dharmas were different from the
Dharmas of other Yugas; and in Kali-Yuga, they assumed still another form. The Dharma
changes according to the changes of the cycles. Man is undergoing change. His nature gets
transformed through experiences. Hence, his external form of Dharmas also should change.
That which is achieved through contemplation in Satya Yuga, through sacrifices in Treta
Yuga, and through the worship of Lord Hari in Dvapara Yuga, may be attained through
Kirtana or loud chanting of Lord Vishnu’s Name in Kali Yuga or Iron age.
In the Satya Yuga, the mind of men was generally pure. They had no distraction of the
mind. There were neither cinemas, nor hotels, nor dancing halls and similar other
distractions. Hence, meditation was easy and natural for them. That is the reason why
contemplation has been prescribed for men of Satya Yuga. In the Treta Yuga, materials for
the performance of Yajnas or sacrifices were easily available. The people had active
tendencies. Therefore it was easy for them to perform Agnihotra, Jyotistoma,
Darsa-Paurnimas and other Yajnas. That is the reason why Yajna has been described as the
external form of Sanatana Dharma in that age. In the Dvapara Yuga, there was the
manifestation of Avataras and men could easily have direct worship of God. Hence, worship
was prescribed as the principal form of Sadhana in that age. In the Kali Yuga, there are
many distractions for the mind. People lack in Brahmacharya, strength of will and power of
enquiry or rational investigation. It is very difficult to procure materials for the
performance of sacrifices. Therefore, Hari Kirtana or loud chanting of the Divine Name and
selfless service of humanity have been recommended as the principal forms of Sadhana.
Conclusion
Follow your Dharma with zeal and enthusiasm. Discharge your duties faithfully.
Develop all the virtues which constitute Dharma. Never deviate an inch from the path of
righteousness. Stick to Dharma with all your heart, with all your mind and with all your
soul. Performance of one’s duties brings happiness, quick evolution and freedom. You
will soon attain immortality, eternal bliss, supreme peace, perennial joy, absolute
freedom and perfection. Glory to Dharma, the supreme light that leads you to the kingdom
of eternal bliss and everlasting peace.
May the eternal Dharma of Hinduism be preserved for ever! May all Hindus be
consolidated by the bond of true love!!
CHAPTER 4
HINDU ETHICS
The mark of Dharma is Achara or good conduct. Achara is the mark of
the good. From Achara is Dharma born. Dharma enhances life. Man attains prosperity and
fame, here and hereafter, through the practice of Dharma.
Good conduct is the highest Dharma. It is the root of all Tapas or austerities.
Righteousness, truth and good works, power and prosperity—all originate from conduct.
Conduct And Character
Man wills to obtain his objects of desires. Willing results in action. This is
called conduct. Conduct is behaviour. The will that is expressed becomes conduct.
Man has various sorts of desires. Sometimes, there is conflict of desires. That desire
which obtains victory is termed ‘will’. The inner disposition which makes the
will possible is called character. Character is the aggregate of peculiar qualities which
constitute personal individuality.
External behaviour is not always a sure guide in judging the character of a man.
Ethics Or The Science Of Conduct
Morality or ethics is the science of conduct. Ethics is the study of what is right
or good in conduct. Ethical science shows the way in which human beings should behave
towards one another, as well as towards other creatures. It contains systematised
principles on which a man should act. Ethics is right conduct or Sadachara.
We have human morality, family morality, social morality, national morality,
professional morality, etc. A doctor has his professional ethics. He should not divulge to
others the secrets of his patients. It is his duty to take all precautionary hygienic
measures to stop the spread of an epidemic disease and direct his earnest attention
towards public health and hygiene.
Ethics is a relative science. What is good for one man may not be good for another man.
What is good at one time and at one place may not be good at another time and at another
place. Ethics is relative to the man himself and to his surroundings.
Ethics, Spirituality And Religion
Without ethics, you cannot have progress in the spiritual path. Ethics is the
foundation of Yoga. Ethics is the corner-stone of Vedanta. Ethics is the strong pillar on
which the edifice of Bhakti Yoga rests. Ethics is the gateway to God-realisation.
Without ethical perfection, no spiritual progress or realisation is possible. A Yogic
student or aspirant must be strictly ethical. He must be truthful and pure in thought,
word and deed. He must possess excellent conduct. He must not injure any living being in
thought, word and deed. He must practise rigidly right thought, right speech and right
action.
Every religion has its ethics. The Sermon on the Mount of Jesus and the Ten
Commandments contain ethical teachings for the uplift of man. The Noble Eightfold Path of
the Buddha is the essence of ethics. The Yamas and Niyamas of Patanjali Maharshi
constitute the highest ethics. Manu Smriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti and Parasara Smriti contain
the code of conduct for man. The three kinds of austerity of the Gita are nothing but
ethics in an intensified form.
Benefits Of The Practice Of Ethics
Morality is the gateway to religion. He who leads a moral or virtuous life attains
freedom, perfection or Moksha.
Practice of ethics will help you to live in harmony with your neighbours, friends, your
own family members, fellow-beings and other people. It will confer on you lasting
happiness and Moksha. It will purify your heart. It will keep your conscience ever clean.
A moral man who follows strictly the principles of ethics will not deviate even a fraction
of an inch from the path of Dharma or righteousness. Yudhishthira had earned an undying
reputation for his practice of ethics. He was an embodiment of Dharma. Hence he still
lives in our hearts.
Good conduct is the root of material and spiritual prosperity. Conduct increases fame.
It is good conduct which prolongs life and destroys all calamities and evils and brings
eternal happiness. It is good conduct that begets virtue. Therefore develop good conduct.
Ethical Codes In Hinduism
Hindu ethics is superb. Hinduism lays great emphasis on ethical discipline. Yama
(self-restraint) and Niyama (religious observances or canons) are the foundations of Yoga
and Vedanta.
Undeveloped persons cannot think for themselves. Hence rules of conduct have been laid
down by great sages or seers like Manu and Sage Yajnavalkya.
Lord Krishna says in the Gita: “Let the scriptures be thy authority in determining
what ought to be done or what ought not to be done. Knowing what hath been declared by the
ordinances of the scriptures, thou oughtest to work in this world” (Ch. XVI-24). The
Smritis written by Yajnavalkya, Manu and other sages distinctly prescribe the rules of
conduct. As you have not got the power nor the time to think of the moral principles and
rules given in the scriptures, you can get them from the sages and saints and follow them
to the very letter.
The Foundational Principles Of Hindu Ethics
The ethics of the Hindus is subtle, sublime and profound. All religions have taught
ethical precepts such as: “Do not kill, do not injure others, love your neighbour as
your self,” but they have not given the reason. The basis of Hindu ethics is this:
“There is one all-pervading Atman. It is the innermost soul of all beings. This is
the common, pure consciousness. If you injure your neighbour, you really injure yourself.
If you injure any other creature, you really injure yourself, because the whole world is
nothing but your own Self.” This is Hindu ethics. This is the basic metaphysical
truth that underlies all Hindu ethical codes.
The Atman or Self is one. One life vibrates in all beings. Life is common in animals,
birds and human beings. Existence is common. This is the emphatic declaration of the
Upanishads or Srutis. This primary truth of religion is the foundation of ethics or
morality or science of right conduct. Morality has Vedanta as its basis.
The first thing you learn from religion is the unity of all selves. The Upanishads
says: “The neighbour is, in truth, the very Self and what separates you from him is
mere illusion.” One Atman or Self abides in all beings. Universal love is the
expression of the unity. Universal brotherhood has its basis in the unity of Self. All
human relations exist because of this unity. Yajnavalkya said to his wife Maitreyi:
“Behold, my dear, not indeed for the love of the husband is the husband dear, for the
love of the Self is the husband dear.” And so with wife, sons, property, friends,
worlds and even the Devas themselves. All are dear, because the one Self is in all. If you
injure another man, you injure yourself. If you help another person, you help yourself.
There is one life, one common consciousness in all beings. This is the foundation of right
conduct. This is the foundation of ethics.
Service As Worship
A philanthropist donates big sums to social institutions. He regards this as some
kind of social service only. That is all. He has not got the Bhava or mental
attitude, that the whole world is a manifestation of the Lord and that he is serving the
Lord. He has not got the Bhava that the Lord is working through his instruments or
senses, that every act is an offering unto the Lord, and that every deed is a Yogic
activity.
In India, dinner is prepared for five hundred persons even when two hundred persons are
invited. Feeding is worship of Narayana or the Lord, for a Hindu. It is Atithi-Yajna or
sacred sacrifice. A Hindu regards every creature as the Lord.
The Hindus are very generous, noble, large-hearted, charitable, God-fearing,
sympathetic, merciful and hospitable. If they see a hungry man in the street, they will
take him to their house, treat him as Atithi-Narayana (God in the form of guest),
feed him first and then take their food. Nowhere in the world you will hear of such a
treatment. You cannot get even a morsel of food free in other countries.
A Hindu believes that if he feeds a single sage or a Mahatma, he is feeding the whole
world, because he has realised that a realised sage is identical with the whole Virat or
Brahman and is one with all beings of the entire universe. Hindu ethics is based on the
sublime philosophy of Vedanta which propounds the doctrine of oneness of life and unity of
consciousness. Ethics or morality and doing good to others, is the manifestation of this
oneness. A Hindu distributes food to the crows, dogs, cows and fish first before he takes
his food. He tries to recognise the one Atman that is hidden in all these forms. He
endeavours to become one with the Universal Being. He knows that in loving others he loves
himself and in injuring others he injures himself. Through the practice of cosmic love he
feels that all bodies are his, all hands are his, all feet are his and that the whole
world is his home (Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam). Gradually he becomes one with the soul
of the universe and one with the Oversoul also. Hindu ethics leads eventually to
Self-realisation. Ethics is a means to Yoga.
Ethical Culture Or The Process Of Purification
The very root and core of all moral discipline is mental purification through
refraining from all evil action and the active practice of virtue. Do good at all times. Ahimsa,
Satya and Brahmacharya symbolise the three processes of avoiding sin, sticking
to virtue and Self-purification.
All harm arises out of man’s egoism. The ego manifests itself as ambition, desire
and lust. Under their influence man indulges in hatred, love, flattery, pride,
unscrupulousness, hypocrisy and delusion.
To eradicate egoism arising out of Deha-Abhimana (body-idea), think constantly
on the foulness and perishability of the body and the pains arising out of the senses.
Reject them as evil and mentally rise above them. Dwell upon that which is desirable,
elevating and divine.
Improper action—thoughtless action without discrimination—gives rise to all
misery. To get freedom from misery, the noble path of virtue—Sadachara—is
to be followed. Rigidly observe truth and purity in your thoughts, speech, actions, inner
motive and general conduct. Be loving, tolerant and charitable in your opinion of men and
things and in your dealings with others.
In every sphere, the individual should strive to adhere to these qualities and to
manifest them. Thus, this ideal is to be practised between parents and children, elders
and youngsters, teacher and pupil, friend and friend, Guru and disciple, leader and
follower, subject and ruler, and nation and nation.
You must proceed along the path of virtue. Be determined never to swerve even an inch
from Dharma. The mind has to be carefully trained and the will should be developed and
strengthened. Therefore much importance has been laid by the ancients upon Yama, Niyama
and Shat-Sampat (six treasures of virtue). The mind and will must be exercised and
disciplined through deliberate acts of self-denial and self-sacrifice in everyday life.
Ethical culture, therefore, demands moral vigilance and right exertion. The development of
a sensitive conscience and positive admiration for goodness and nobility plays a great
part in ethical culture.
Philosophy Of Right And Wrong
Everybody speaks: “This is right, that is wrong; you are right, he is
wrong;” but he cannot tell you exactly what he means by ‘right’ and
‘wrong’.
What is the criterion by which we judge an action to be right or wrong, and good or
bad? “Right and wrong” and “good and bad” are relative terms. Right
and wrong refer to the moral standard, as law. Good and bad refer to it, as end.
You will have to adjust your conduct according to this moral standard. That which is
in accordance with a rule is right. That which is worthy of achievement is good. Religion
gives us the ultimate data upon which ethical science may be built.
Relative Nature Of Right And Wrong
Right and wrong—Dharma and Adharma—are relative terms. It is
very difficult to define these terms precisely. Even sages are bewildered sometimes in
finding out what is right and what is wrong in some special circumstances. That is the
reason why Lord Krishna says in the Gita: “What is action? What is inaction? Even the
wise are herein perplexed. Therefore I will declare to thee the action by knowing which
thou shalt be liberated from evil. It is needful to discriminate action, to discriminate
unlawful action, and to discriminate inaction; mysterious is the path of action. He who
seeth inaction in action and action in inaction, he is wise among men; he is harmonious,
even while performing all actions” (Ch. IV-16, 17, 18).
Illustrations Of Right And Wrong
Right and wrong are always relative to the surrounding circumstances. What is right in
one situation is not right in another. Right and wrong vary according to time, special
circumstances, Varna (status or class in society) and Asrama (order or stage
of life). Morality is a changing and relative term. That passionate man who molests his
legally married wife frequently to gratify his passion is more immoral than a man who
visits the house of his sister of ill-fame once in six months. That man who dwells
constantly on immoral thoughts is the most immoral man. Do you clearly note the subtle
difference now? To kill an enemy is right for a Kshatriya king. A Brahmin or Sannyasin
should not kill anybody even for protecting himself during times of danger. They should
practise strict forbearance and forgiveness. To speak an untruth to save the life of a
Mahatma or one’s Guru, who has been unjustly charged by the unjust officer of a
state, is right. Untruth has become a truth in this particular case. To speak a truth
which brings harm to many is untruth only. To kill a dacoit who murders the wayfarers
daily is Ahimsa only. Himsa becomes Ahimsa under certain circumstances.
Forgiveness or Kshama befits an ascetic or Sannyasin who leads the life of
Nivritti Marga or renunciation. It cannot befit a ruler. The ruler may forgive one who has
injured him, but he cannot forgive one who has done the greatest harm to the public.
There are special Dharmas during critical, dangerous circumstances. They are called
Apad-Dharma. Rishi Visvamitra took forbidden meat from a Chandala or outcaste when there
was a severe famine, and offered this in his sacrifice to the Devas. Ushasti, a learned
sage, took the polluted beans from the hands of an elephant-driver when the former was
suffering from acute hunger and when he was not able to get food from anyone else.
Indicators Of Right And Wrong
Rishi Kanada, author of the Vaiseshika system of philosophy, says in the opening Sutra:
“That which elevates you and brings you nearer to God, is right. That which brings
you down and takes you away from God, is wrong. That which is done in strict accordance
with the injunctions of the scriptures is right and that which is done against their
injunctions is wrong.” This is one way of defining the terms ‘right’ and
‘wrong’. To work in accordance With the Divine Will is right and to work in
opposition to the Divine Will is wrong.
It is very difficult for the man in the street to find out what exactly the Divine Will
is, in certain actions. That is the reason why wise sages declare that people should
resort to Sastras, learned Pundits and realised persons, for consultation. A pure man who
has done Nishkama Karma-Yoga for several years and who is doing worship of Isvara for a
long time, can readily find out the Divine Will when he wants to do certain actions. He
can hear the inner, shrill, silent voice. Ordinarily people should not attempt to hear
this Divine Voice, the Voice of the Silence. They may mistake the voice of the impure mind
for the Voice of God. The lower instinctive mind will delude them.
Selfishness clouds understanding. Therefore, if a man has got even a tinge of
selfishness, he cannot detect what is right and wrong. A very pure, subtle and sharp
intellect is needed for this purpose. The Bhagavad-Gita describes the nature of Sattvic
reason, Rajasic reason and Tamasic reason as follows: “That which knoweth energy and
abstinence, what ought to be done and what ought not to be done, fear and fearlessness,
bondage and liberation, that reason is pure, O Partha. That by which one wrongly
understandeth right and wrong, and also what ought to be done and what ought not to be
done, that reason, O Partha, is passionate. That which is enwrapped in darkness, thinketh
wrong to be right and seeth all things subverted, that reason, O Partha, is of
darkness” (Ch. XVIII-30, 31, 32).
Various other definitions are given by wise men to help the students in the path of
righteousness. In the Bible it is said: “Do unto others as you would be done
by.” This is a very good maxim. The whole gist of Sadachara or right conduct is here.
If one practises this very carefully, he will not commit any wrong act. Do not do to
another what is not good for yourself. Do not do any act which does not bring good to
another or which injures another and makes you feel ashamed for it. Do that act which
brings good to others and which is praiseworthy. Do as you would be done by. Do unto
others as you wish others should do unto you. This is the secret of Dharma. This is the
secret essence of Karma Yoga. This is a brief description of what right conduct is. This
will lead you to the attainment of eternal bliss.
“Ahimsa Paramo Dharmah—non-injuring in thought, word and deed is the
highest of all virtues.” If one is well established in Ahimsa in thought, word and
deed, he can never do any wrong action. That is the reason why Patanjali Maharshi has
given Ahimsa great prominence in his Raja Yoga philosophy. Ahimsa comes first in the
practice of Yama or self-restraint. To give happiness to others is right; to spread misery
and pain to others is wrong. One can follow this in his daily conduct towards others and
can evolve in his spiritual path. Do not perform any act that brings to you shame and
fear. You will be quite safe if you follow this rule. Stick to any rule that appeals to
your reason and conscience and follow it with faith and attention. You will evolve and
reach the abode of eternal happiness.
That work which gives elevation, joy and peace to the mind is right and that which
brings depression, pain and restlessness to the mind is wrong. This is an easy way to find
out right and wrong.
That which helps you in your spiritual evolution is right and that which obstructs and
hinders your spiritual evolution is wrong. That which leads to unity of self is right and
that which leads to separation is wrong. That which is in accordance with the injunctions
of the holy scriptures is right and that which is not in accordance with the sacred lore
is wrong. To work in accordance with the Divine Will is right and to work in disharmony
with the Divine Will is wrong. To do good to others, to serve and help others, to give joy
to others, is right and to give pain to others, to injure others is wrong. All that which
is free from any motive of injury to any being is surely morality. Moral precepts have
been made to free creatures from all injuries.
Why is charity right? Because it is in conformity with the law: “Do charity.”
Why is stealing wrong? Because it is against the law: “Thou shalt not steal.”
Why is it good to help a man when he is in trouble and difficulties? Because it will
refine and ennoble your character. It will instil mercy in your heart. The cultivation of
virtues will help you to realise the Supreme Self. Why is it bad to kill any being? The
end is unworthy. It will corrupt your character. It will reduce you to the level of a
brute.
Yogic Gardening
By doing wrong actions, you taint your character. By doing virtuous actions, you
develop a noble character. Without character, man falls down to the level of a brute. A
man of character is honoured, trusted and adored everywhere. Therefore, develop a good
character when you are young. Learn how to eradicate vices and how to cultivate virtues in
the garden of your heart. Vices and evil habits are the weeds. Virtues are priceless
fruits and flowers. Learn the Yogic method of Pratipaksha Bhavana or cultivation of the
opposites. Purity or celibacy, forgiveness, generosity, humility and selflessness are the
opposites of lust, anger, greed, pride and selfishness. Become a skilful Yogic gardener.
Plant good flowers in the garden of your heart and enthrone the Lord in the centre of the
heart-garden and meditate on Him. You will enjoy eternal bliss and immortality.
Conclusion
You must obey the laws or rules of conduct. The rules are given for you by the
law-givers for your own betterment and spiritual uplift. The law-givers are great sages
who had direct God-realisation.
To stick to Sadachara is difficult, no doubt. Mockery, misunderstanding and persecution
will have to be faced. Therefore, the cultivation of forbearance, meekness of spirit, calm
endurance and spirit of forgiveness are of great importance. Uphold virtue at any cost.
For its sake, bear any calumny. Return good for evil.
Do not leave the path of morality even if your life is in danger. Do not leave
righteousness for the sake of some material gain. Consult the Sastras and Mahatmas
whenever you are in doubt. Build up your character. Grow. Evolve. Keep up your ideal
always before your mind. Stick to Sadachara or right conduct. Practise it. You will soon
attain eternal bliss and immortality.
CHAPTER 5
HINDU TENETS
The Law Of Karma
What Is Karma?
Karma means not only action, but also the result of an action. The consequence of an
action is really not a separate thing. It is a part of the action, and cannot be divided
from it. Breathing, thinking, talking, seeing, hearing, eating, etc., are Karmas. Thinking
is mental Karma. Karma is the sum total of our acts both in the present life and in the
preceding births.
Any deed, any thought that causes an effect, is called a Karma. The Law of Karma means
the law of causation. Wherever there is a cause, there an effect must be produced. A seed
is a cause for the tree which is the effect. The tree produces seeds and becomes the cause
for the seeds.
How Karma Is Fashioned
Man is threefold in his nature. He consists of Ichha (desire, feeling), Jnana (knowing)
and Kriya (willing). These three fashion his Karma. He knows objects like chair, tree,
etc. He feels joy and sorrow. He wills to do this, or not to do that.
Behind the action, there are desire and thought. A desire for an object arises in the
mind. Then you think how to get it. Then you exert to possess it. Desire, thought and
action always go together. They are the three threads, as it were, that are twisted into
the cord of Karma.
Desire produces Karma. You work and exert to acquire the objects of your desire. Karma
produces its fruits as pain or pleasure. You will have to take births after births to reap
the fruits of your Karmas. This is the Law of Karma.
The Working Of The Law
The Law of Karma is one of the fundamental doctrines not only in Hinduism, but also in
Buddhism, and in Jainism. As a man sows, so he shall reap. This is the Law of Karma. If
you do an evil action, you must suffer for it. If you do a good action, you must get
happiness. There is no power on this earth which can stop the actions from yielding their
fruits. Every thought, every word, every deed is, as it were, weighed in the scales of
eternal, divine Justice. The Law of Karma is inexorable.
Things do not happen in this universe by accident or chance in a disorderly manner.
They happen in regular succession. They follow one another in a regular order. There is a
certain definite connection between what is being done now by you, and what will happen in
the future.
Every action produces a threefold effect. It gives you an appropriate reward or fruit.
It also affects your character. It leaves behind an impression in your mind. This
impression will urge you to repeat the act again. The impression will assume the form of a
thought-wave in the mind on account of a stimulus, either external or internal. An action
produces an effect in the world also.
As You Sow, So You Reap
If you put a seed in the earth, it sends up a little stem. Then leaves come out of the
stem. Then come flowers and fruits. There are seeds again in the fruits. Mango seed only
produces mango tree. If you sow rice, you cannot expect a crop of wheat. The same sort of
seed produces the same kind of plant. A human being alone is born from the womb of a
woman, a horse from a horse and a dog from a dog. Similarly, if you sow the seed of an
evil action, you will reap a harvest of pain and suffering. If you sow the seed of a
virtuous action, you will reap a harvest of pleasure. This is the Law of Karma.
Whatever you sow by your actions come back to you. If you make others happy through
service, charity and kind acts, you sow happiness like a seed; and it will give you the
fruit of happiness. If you make others unhappy through harsh words, insult, ill-treatment,
cruel acts, oppression, etc., you sow unhappiness like a seed; and it will give you the
fruit of pain, suffering, misery and unhappiness. This is the immutable Law of Karma.
Your actions in the past are responsible for your present condition. Your present
actions will shape or mould your future. There is nothing chaotic or capricious in this
world. You become good by your good actions, and bad by your evil actions.
If you entertain evil thoughts, you must suffer the consequences. You will be in
difficulties. You will be surrounded by unfavourable circumstances. You will blame your
surroundings and circumstances. Understand the law and live wisely. Entertain noble
thoughts. You will be happy always.
Action—Habit—Character—Destiny
Thought moulds your character. If you entertain noble thoughts, you will develop a
noble character; and if you entertain evil thoughts, you will develop a base character.
This is the immutable Law of Nature. Therefore, you can deliberately shape your character
by cultivating sublime thoughts. Thought materialises and becomes an action. If you allow
the mind to dwell on good, elevating thoughts, you will do naturally good and laudable
actions.
Conduct or behaviour reveals your character. Conduct also moulds your Character.
Cultivation of good conduct needs rigorous discipline and constant vigilance. You will
have to watch every thought, word and action. You must be extremely careful when you
conduct yourself with others. With all your good intentions, you will be carried away by
the force of your previous wrong impressions, instincts and impulses. Even highly educated
people lack in behaviour. Good behaviour indicates that you have a refined or polished,
disciplined mind and real, good spiritual culture. The practice of Japa, Pranayama and
Mauna (or vow of silence) will help you to control the impulses etc.
You sow an action and reap a habit. You sow a habit and reap a character. You sow a
character and reap your destiny. Hence, destiny is your own make-up. You have built it.
You can undo it by entertaining noble thoughts, and doing virtuous actions, and changing
your mode of thinking. Now you are thinking that you are the body, Mr. So and so. Now,
start the anti-current of thought. Think that you are all-pervading, immortal Brahman.
Brahman you will become. This is an immutable Law.
The Three Kinds Of Karma
Sanchita, Prarabdha and Agami
Karma is of three kinds, viz., Sanchita (accumulated works), Prarabdha (fructifying
works) and Kriyamana or Agami (current works). Sanchita is all the accumulated Karmas of
the past. Part of it is seen in the character of man, in his tendencies and aptitudes,
capacities, inclinations and desires, etc. Tendencies come from this. Prarabdha is that
portion of the past Karma which is responsible for the present body. That portion of the
Sanchita Karma which influences human life in the present incarnation is called Prarabdha.
It is ripe for reaping. It cannot be avoided or changed. It is only exhausted by being
experienced. You pay your past debts. Prarabdha Karma is that which has begun and is
actually bearing fruit. It is selected out of the mass of the Sanchita Karma. Kriyamana is
that Karma which is now being made for the future. It is also called Agami or Vartamana.
In Vedantic literature, there is a beautiful analogy. The bowman has already sent an
arrow and it has left his hands. He cannot recall it. He is about to shoot another arrow.
The bundle of arrows in the quiver on his back is the Sanchita; the arrow he has shot is
Prarabdha; and the arrow which he is about to shoot from his bow is Agami. Of these, he
has perfect control over the Sanchita and the Agami, but he must surely work out his
Prarabdha. The past which has begun to take effect he has to experience.
There is another beautiful analogy also. The granary represents the Sanchita Karma;
that portion taken from the granary and put in the shop for future daily sale corresponds
to Agami; that which is sold daily represents Prarabdha.
The whole lot of Sanchita Karma is destroyed by attaining Knowledge of Brahman or the
Eternal. It can be greatly modified by entertaining lofty, divine thoughts, and doing
virtuous actions. Agami Karma can be destroyed by expiatory rites or Prayaschitta; and by
removing the idea of agency through Nimitta Bhava (attitude that one is an
instrument in the hands of God) and Sakshi Bhava (attitude that one is silent
witness of the actions of the senses and of the mind).
The Supremacy Of Free-Will
You are the master of your own fate. You are the architect of your own fortune. You are
responsible for what you suffer. You are responsible for your present state. If you are
happy, it has been your own making. If you are miserable, it has also been your own
making. Every action bears a fruit sooner or later. A virtuous action produces pleasure as
its effect. An evil deed causes pain.
You have no Bhoga-Svatantrya (freedom to determine the result of action), but
you have Karma-Svatantrya (freedom to determine the course of action). That is the
reason why the Lord Krishna says: “Karmanyeva Adhikaraste Ma Phaleshu Kadachana—Thy
business is with the action only, never with its fruits.” Janaka and others attained
to perfection by action. You can change your character, your thoughts and desires.
Man’s will is ever free. Through selfishness his will has become impure. He can
render his will pure, strong and dynamic by getting rid of his base desires, and likes and
dislikes. Every soul is like a husbandman who has got a plot of land. The acreage, the
nature of the soil, the conditions of weather are all predetermined. But the husbandman is
quite at liberty to till the earth, manure it and get good crops, or to allow it to remain
as a waste land.
What you are now at present is the result of what you thought and did in the past. What
you shall be in the future will be the result of what you think and do now. You find an
environment which is best suited to the tendencies you acquired in a former life. You can
create better conditions for the future. You can make your Karma what you choose. You can
rise to a very high state of perfection. You can become an Indra or you may become a
perfect Yogin. You can change your character, thoughts and actions. Therefore Bhishma and
Vasishtha have placed Purushartha or exertion, above destiny.
A boatman without oars, rudder and sails is carried away helplessly by the winds and
currents; but a clever boatman with oars, sails and rudder, ably directs the boat in any
direction he likes and reaches the other shore safely. Even so, he who knows the Laws of
Nature—the law of thought, the law of Karma, the law of cause and effect—can
sail fearlessly in this ocean of Samsara and reach the other shore of fearlessness and
immortality quite safely. He will utilise the helping forces to his best advantage and
neutralise the opposing forces skilfully, with the help of the knowledge of the Laws.
Knowledge is a torch-light. Hence, knowledge is absolutely indispensable. Ignorance is the
greatest sin. An ignorant man becomes a victim or a slave of nature.
The Glory Of Selfless Work
Selfish Karma leads you to rebirth and rebirth generates new Karma while working off
the old. Get rid of Karma if you wish to get rid of the miseries of rebirth. Selfless work
will not bind you. It will purify your heart and lead to the descent of the divine light
and grace. Understand the Law of Karma and the law of cause and effect. Think rightly. Act
nobly. Meditate regularly and attain eternal bliss and immortality.
The Doctrine Of Reincarnation
The doctrine of reincarnation or transmigration of souls is a fundamental tenet of
Hinduism. The word reincarnation literally means embodiment again, coming again
into a physical body. The individual soul takes again a fleshy covering. The word transmigration
means passing from one place to another—passing into a new body.
The Sanskrit term Samsara is derived from the Sanskrit root Sr, which
means ‘to pass’. The prefix Sam means ‘intensely’. The
individual soul passes repeatedly through this world and other subtle higher worlds. This
repeated passing of souls—Samsriti—is what is really meant by the term Samsara.
Samsara exists in order that the individual soul may learn to realise itself.
Man contains within himself infinite possibilities. The magazine of power and wisdom is
within him. He has to unfold the divinity within. This is the object of living and dying.
Enunciation Of The Doctrine In The Hindu Scriptures
You will not cease to exist after death. Before this birth, you have passed through
countless lives. The Lord Krishna says in the Gita: “O Arjuna, both you and I have
had many births before this; only I know them all, while you do not. Birth is inevitably
followed by death, and death by rebirth. As a man casting off worn-out garments taketh new
ones, so the dweller in the body, casting off worn-out bodies, entereth into others that
are new.”
The Upanishads also declare: “Just as a caterpillar which has come to the top of a
blade of grass, draws itself over to a new blade, so also does the soul draw itself over
to a new body, after it has put aside its old body” (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad).
“Just as a goldsmith, having taken a piece of gold, makes another form, new and more
beautiful, so also, verily the Atman having cast off this body and having put away Avidya
or ignorance, makes another new and more beautiful form” (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad).
“Like corn, does a mortal ripen; like corn, does he spring to life again”
(Kathopanishad).
Karma And Rebirth
The doctrine of rebirth is a corollary to the Law of Karma. The differences of
disposition that are found between one individual and another must be due to their
respective past actions. Past action implies past birth. Further, all your Karmas cannot
certainly bear fruit in this life. Therefore, there must be another birth for enjoying the
remaining actions. Each soul has a series of births and deaths. Births and deaths will
continue till you attain Knowledge of the Imperishable.
Good Karmas lead to incarnation into higher spheres and bad Karmas into lower. By
virtue is obtained ascent to higher planes and by vice, descent to the lower. From wisdom
results beatitude, and bondage from the reverse. So long as Karmas—whether good or
bad—are not exhausted, men do not attain Moksha or the final emancipation even in
hundreds of Kalpas. Both good and bad Karmas bind tight the Jiva in their chains. One is a
chain of gold and the other is that of iron. Moksha cannot be attained by man, so long as
Knowledge of the Eternal is not attained.
Proofs For The Existence Of Previous Births
A new-born child manifests marks of joy, fear and grief. This is inexplicable unless we
suppose that the child, perceiving certain things in this life, remembers the
corresponding things of the past life. The things which used to excite joy, fear and grief
in the past life, continue to do so in this life. The memory of the past proves the
previous birth, as well as the existence of the soul.
A child, just born, drinks the breast of its mother through the remembrance that it did
so in the previous life, as a means of satisfying hunger. The child’s desire for milk
in this life is caused by the remembrance of its experience in the previous life. This
proves that the child’s soul, though it has abandoned a previous body and has taken
on a new one, remembers the experiences of the previous body.
You do not come into the world in total forgetfulness and in utter darkness. You are
born with certain memories and habits acquired in the previous birth. Desires take their
origin from previous experiences. We find that none is born without desire. Every being is
born with some desires which are associated with the things enjoyed by him in the past
life. The desires prove the existence of his soul in previous lives.
Passage Of The Soul Between Death And Rebirth
The soul migrates with the astral body, or Sukshma-Sarira or Linga-Deha. This
astral body is made up of nineteen Tattvas or principles, viz., five organs of
action, five organs of knowledge, five Pranas, mind, intellect, Chitta (the
subconscious), and Ahankara or egoism. This subtle body carries with it all sorts
of Samskaras or impressions, and Vasanas or tendencies, of the individual
soul. The subtle body moves towards heaven. When the fruits of good Karmas have been
exhausted, it gathers for itself a new physical body and reincarnates on this earth plane.
Those whose conduct has been good attain good births and those whose conduct has been
evil are thrown into sinful wombs or lower births.
The Devayana And The Pitriyana
When a man who has practised meditation and worship dies, he first goes to light, then
from light to day, from day to the bright half of the moon, from the bright half of the
moon to the six months when the sun goes to the north, from that to the year, from the
year to the sun, from the sun to the moon, from the moon to the lightning. When he comes
to the sphere of lightning, he meets a person who is not human. That person leads him to
the Karya Brahman or Hiranyagarbha. This is the Way of the Devas or Devayana.
He who has done works of public utility and alms, first goes to the smoke when he dies,
from smoke to night, from night to the dark half of the moon, from the dark half of the
moon to the six months when the sun goes to the south; and from that, he goes to the
region of the forefathers, from the world of the forefathers to the ether, from the ether
to the moon. He lives there so long as his good works will allow. When the effect of the
good works is exhausted, he comes back to this earth by the same route. He first becomes
ether, and then air, and then smoke, and then mist, then cloud, and then falls upon the
earth as rain-drops. Then he gets into food which is eaten up by man, and finally becomes
his child.
He passes through the various existences of the mineral kingdom, of the plant and of
the animal realms—the Udbhijja (born of seed), the Svedaja (born of sweat) and the
Andaja (born of eggs), before coming into the Jarayuja (viviparous or of placental
origin).
How To Break The Bond Of Samsara
The chains that tie you to this wheel of Samsara or Bhava-Chakra or round
of births and deaths, are your desires. So long as you desire objects of this world, you
must come back to this world in order to possess and enjoy them. But, when all your
desires for the mundane objects cease, then the chains are broken and you are free. You
need not take any more births. You attain Moksha or the final emancipation.
You wander in this Samsara as you think that you are different from the Lord. If you
unite yourself with Him through meditation and Yoga, you will obtain immortality and
eternal bliss. Cut the bonds of Karma through Knowledge of the Eternal and enjoy the
Supreme Peace of the Atman, thy innermost Self and Inner Ruler. You will be freed from the
round of births and deaths. Freed from sin, freed from passion, you will become a
Jivanmukta or liberated sage. You will see the Self in the self and see the Self as all.
The Concept Of Avatara
Avatara is the decent of God on earth for the ascent of man. The Lord
Krishna says: “Though unborn, the Imperishable Self and also the Lord of all beings,
yet brooding over nature which is Mine own, I am born through My Own Power. Whenever there
is decline of righteousness, then I Myself come forth. For the protection of the good, for
the destruction of the evil-doers, for the sake of firmly establishing righteousness, I am
born from age to age” (Ch. IV-6, 7, 8).
The Doctrine Of Grace
The Bhagavatas had their own scriptures called the Pancharatra Agamas which expounded
the cult of Vasudeva and which were, therefore, looked upon by them as being equal to the
Upanishads. Their religion was based on God’s Grace to erring humanity. It,
therefore, greatly emphasised the doctrine of Avatara or incarnation and popularised the
immortal stories which were afterwards collected together in the Harivamsa, Vishnu Purana
and the Bhagavata Purana. If you study these books, you will clearly know about the glory
of Lord Krishna.
You can attain God-realisation through worship of Avataras like Krishna and Rama. Many
have already attained God-realisation. Tukaram, Ramdas, Surdas, Mira Bai, Tulsidas and
several others have seen God face to face. Their powerful writings bespeak of their high
spiritual attainments.
Degree Of God’s Manifestation
There are Purna-Avataras (full incarnations), Amsa-Avataras (partial incarnations),
Avesa-Avataras (inspirational incarnations), etc. The Lord Krishna has sixteen rays. He is
a Purna-Avatara. He still exists. There are His Nitya-Lilas in Go-Loka or Celestial
Vrindavana.
It is only ignorant, deluded souls who speak against the doctrine of Avatara, who say
that the Lord Krishna was a human being only. They have not studied properly the holy
scriptures. They are Tamasic persons with little understanding. They cavil and carp. The
Lord Krishna says: “The evil-doing, the deluded, the vilest men, they come not to Me,
they whose wisdom is destroyed by illusion, who have embraced the nature of demons. Such
is their fate.”
Friends! Worship Rama or Krishna at all times with all your heart and with all your
mind. Glorify Him in your heart. He will soon reveal Himself to you and you will feel His
Presence. You will attain immortality and eternal bliss. Glory to Avataras. Glory to the
Lords, Krishna and Rama, the Avataras of Lord Vishnu! May their blessings be upon you all.
CHAPTER 6
Hindu Rituals
Sandhyopasana
Sandhyopasana literally means ‘worship at the junctions of time.’ It is a
prayer and worship offered to the Lord at the junction (Sandhi) of night and
morning, forenoon and afternoon and at the junction of evening and night. The
Arghyapradana to the sun and the meditation on and recitation of Gayatri, form the heart
of the worship. Properly understood, the whole Sandhya is an earnest prayer addressed to
the Lord to forgive all one’s sins committed during one’s routine, daily
activities and to bestow illumination and grace.
Sandhyopasana must be performed at the proper Sandhyas. Then only the performer can
derive much merit. There is a special manifestation of force at Sandhyas. This force
disappears when the Sandhya is past.
An Obligatory Duty
Sandhyopasana is the daily religious practice of the Hindus whose investiture with the
holy thread has been performed. Sandhya is a Nitya Karma or an action that is to be done
daily. Sandhya is an obligatory duty to be performed daily for self-purification and
self-improvement.
Sandhya should be performed by all followers of the Sanatana Dharma. Every Brahmachari
and every householder must perform it every day. If he fails to perform it, there is
Pratyavaya Dosha or the sin of omission. He loses his Brahma-Tejas.
According to the Hindu Sastras, a Brahmana, a Kshatriya and a Vaisya will get hell, if
they do not perform three times Sandhyopasana (Traikalika Sandhya) daily. It is for the
purpose of Sandhya only, the law of Yajnopavita-Samskara is laid down in the Yajnavalkya
Smriti which says: “The Brahmana in his eighth year, the Kshatriya in his eleventh
year and the Vaisya in his twelfth year are fit to be given Yajnopavita.” Because,
only after this particular Samskara, they are supposed to be worthy to worship Sandhya and
take to Vedic rites. They should keep themselves pure internally and externally. They can
nicely understand the sacred glory of this divine science.
Benefits Of Sandhyopasana
Sandhya is a combination of Japa, Upasana, Svadhyaya, meditation, concentration,
Asana, Pranayama, etc. He who does Sandhya daily has Brahma-Tejas or
spiritual lustre, in his face. A man who performs his daily Sandhya, according to the
prescribed rules, at the appointed time as laid down in the scriptures, attains purity and
success in his every effort. He becomes powerful as well as calm. Regular Sandhya cuts the
chain of old Samskaras and changes everybody’s old situation entirely. It brings
purity, Atma-Bhava, devotion and sincerity.
The Ceremony
The important features of this ceremony are: (i) Achamana or sipping of water
with recitation of Mantras (viz., Achyutaya Namah, Anantaya Namah, Govindaya Namah, etc.),
Marjana or sprinkling of water on the body which purifies the mind and the body, Aghamarshana
or expiation for the sins of many births, and Surya Arghya or oblations of
water to the Sun-god, (ii) Pranayama or control of breath which steadies the
wandering mind, and silent recitation of Gayatri, (iii) Upasthana or religious
obeisance.
Arghya
The first part up to Arghya consists of hymns addressed to water and its
benefits. The sprinkling of water on the face and the head and the touching of the
different organs (the mouth, nose, eyes, ears, chest, shoulders, head, etc.) with wetted
fingers, are meant to purify those parts of the body and invoke the respective presiding
deities on them. They also stimulate the nerve-centres and wake up the dormant powers of
the body.
The Arghya drives the demons who obstruct the path of the rising sun. Esoterically,
lust, anger and greed are the demons who obstruct the intellect from rising up. The
intellect is the sun.
Pranayama and Japa
The second part of Sandhya consists of Pranayama and Japa of Gayatri.
Suryopasthana
The third part of Sandhya is the Suryopasthana. It is a prayer for forgiveness, mercy
and grace. The prayer is: “Let me not go down to the earthly house. Have mercy, O
Lord! My strength was very weak, O Lord! I did wrong actions. Have mercy, O Lord!”
These are Vedic hymns addressed to the sun in the morning, noon and evening. The sun is
the intellect in man. Ignorance is the night. Knowledge is the light. When you rise up
from the darkness of ignorance, when the eye of intuition is opened through the grace of
Gayatri, the Blessed Mother of the Vedas, you attain eternal bliss, supreme peace and
immortality. It is that divine light which dispels delusion and the darkness of ignorance.
It is that adorable splendour with which the world is glowing. It is that holy lustre
which graciously fills the heart of a devotee with eternal bliss. It is this supreme Light
which the aspirant craves from God through the Gayatri Mantra. He begs of God this
Knowledge for his Realisation.
Sandhyopasana—An Exact Science
Man naturally wants to realise the Truth. He wants to know the secret of Creation. In
this connection, scriptures emphatically declare: “Only at the moment when all doubts
are cleared, ignorance is destroyed, hypocrisy and cruelty are rent asunder, and when a
man sees Him in the abode of his heart, the real and ultimate Truth is revealed.”
Sandhya-Vijnana or the Science of Sandhya is an exact science to attain success in the
realm of Truth. One need not have any kind of superstition to learn this divine science.
One need not prove its greatness. Its greatness, its glory, is open truth. Even the
materialistic society of today agrees with the truth of Sandhya-Vijnana. In the
scriptures, it is laid: “Brahmanhood is the tree, Sandhya is its root, Vedas are its
branches, religious acts are its leaves; therefore take care of its root, i.e.,
Sandhya.” Now the glory of Sandhya is very clear. Sandhya is absolutely necessary for
a man who is treading the path of Truth. Aharahah Sandhyamupasita, i.e., a Brahmin
should perform regularly his daily Sandhya at any cost—is the injunction of the
scriptures.
Prerequisites For The Practice Of Sandhya
Diet
If you want to learn this science, you must be careful about your diet. Take regular
and light Sattvic food. Man is much influenced by his diet. See the difference between a
small lion and a big elephant. You will be able to improve yourself by adjusting your
diet. Idleness is due to a variety of rich diet only. Therefore, be strict in your daily
diet. You will be ever active and strong.
Sitting Pose
A man who performs Sandhya does not care about his sitting pose. He sits in any
posture. This is not much beneficial. He should daily sit in a perfect posture, Padmasana
or Sukhasana, facing the particular direction. As far as possible, he must finish his
Sandhya in one sitting. He must have perfect mastery over Asana. Then he will have
concentration in his Sandhya.
Faith and Devotion
You must do your Sandhya with faith and devotion. Mere repetition will not bring much
good. Pray from the core of your heart to the Lord to forgive your sins.
A Word To The Younger Generation
Our young college students, who are under the influence of wrong Samskaras and wrong
education and evil company, have forgotten all about the glory and high efficacy of
Sandhya. They are not doing Sandhya. Sandhya has no meaning for them. They have become
Godless men. They want laboratory tests and scientific proofs for the usefulness of
Sandhya, before they begin to do Sandhya. It must be supported by the statements of
western scientists. The words of ancient Rishis do not appeal to them. What a greatly
degraded state!
O young students! Do not ruin yourself by neglecting Sandhya. Regular performance of
Sandhya will give you success in life and material and spiritual prosperity, good health
and long life, purity of heart, and help you to attain God-realisation. Do it from now at
least. Yet there is hope for you. Wake up. Be sincere.
Now take strict resolve from this very moment to be regular in your daily Sandhya, even
under many distractions and obstacles. Begin it from this very moment. Do not delay.
Reduce your useless activities. Talk little. Do not mix much. You will get plenty of time
for your Sandhya.
Be strict in your Sandhya. Let there be rain or wind. Even if the Pralaya comes, do not
leave it half-done. Many people say that they have not got time to perform Sandhya. They
have to attend several functions. This is due to their weakness and lack of good
Samskaras. They do not know the glory of this divine science. If they see one of their
friends sitting on the banks of the river and performing Sandhya, they will begin to shout
or they will play some sort of mischief. But these poor creatures do not know what secret
is hidden behind the Sandhya. The Secret of secrets is hidden in this sacred performance.
This is why ancient Rishis say: “One who does not perform daily Sandhya is a real
animal.”
May God give you the mind to perform daily Sandhya at any cost. May you follow the
rules of Sandhya. May you realise the glory of Sandhya-Vijnana and be free from all
tribulations and torments. May the divine science named Sandhya-Vijnana bestow purity,
immense joy and immortality on you!
The Ten Scriptural Samskaras
The rites that pertain to the stages of life of man are called Samskaras.
The Samskaras are purificatory rites which sanctify the life of the Hindu. They give a
spiritual touch to the important events in the life of the individual from conception to
cremation. They mark the important stages of a man’s life. Just as the outline of a
picture is lighted up slowly with the filling in of many colours, so also is Brahmanya
with scriptural Samskaras. There are the Samskaras of childhood, of boyhood, of manhood
and of old age and death.
There are fiftytwo Samskaras. Among these, ten are important. The ten principal and
generally recognised Samskaras are: Garbhadana, Pumsavana, Simantonnayana, Jatakarma,
Namakarana, Annaprasana, Chudakarma, Upanayana, Samavartana and Vivaha. Of
these ten, only some are now performed. Some of the Samskaras pertain to infantile life
and early childhood. Some are ceremonies which may be performed daily or on special
occasions. The whole life of the Hindu is thus consecrated and protected from the cradle
to the grave.
Garbhadana
The Garbhadana sanctifies the creative act. The husband prays fervently from the core
of his heart that a child may be conceived. He repeats sacred Mantras during Ritu-Santi
ceremony or nuptials. The new child is conceived amidst the vibration of Mantras. Good
impressions are impressed in the brain-cells of the embryo. For a real Hindu who is
endowed with pure intellect and right understanding, the sexual union is not for the sake
of mere enjoyment. He utilises the divine, creative, vital energy for the formation of a
human body. Husband and wife should be cheerful and pious when they have intercourse. When
their minds are perturbed or agitated, or when there is anger or hatred, they should avoid
copulation. They should study holy scriptures. If they have the image of Arjuna, they will
have a chivalrous and wise son. If they have the image of Lord Buddha, they will bring
forth a son with mercy and other good virtues. If they have the image Of Dhanvantari, they
will get a son who will turn out to be a reputed Ayurvedic doctor. If they think of Surya
or Sun-God, they will bring forth a lustrous son with splendour and effulgence.
Pumsavana
In the third month, the Pumsavana is performed with Mantras. The food-sheath and the
vital-sheath of the child are formed.
Simantonnayana
The Simantonnayana is performed at the seventh month with recitation of Veda Mantras.
This protects the mother from evil influences and bestows health on the child. The above
three Samskaras protect the mother and the child. The body of the child develops nicely.
The harmonious vibrations set up by the recitation of Mantras and the performance of the
ceremonies help in shaping the body of the child beautifully.
Jatakarma
The next Samskara, the ceremony performed immediately after the birth of the child, is
the Jatakarma. The father welcomes his new-born child. He prays for its long life,
intelligence and well-being, and feeds it with honey and butter.
Namakarana
Then comes Namakarana or the naming ceremony. The new-born child is given a name on the
tenth, eleventh or twelfth day with recitation of Mantras.
Annaprasana
The Annaprasana comes in the sixth month when the child is given solid food for the
first time. Mantras are recited and oblations are offered to the various deities.
Chudakarma
The Chudakarma, the tonsure or shaving of the head, is performed in the first or third
year. The Karnavedha or ear-boring ceremony is performed in the fifth or the seventh year
or at the end of the first year with the Chudakarma. The body of the child is protected
and harmonised by these ceremonies. Any hereditary defect that arises from defect of semen
and embryo is removed. Vidyarambha also is another Samskara. Alphabet is taught to the
child. This is also known by the name Aksharabhyasa. These Samskaras pertain to the child
stage of life.
Upanayana
The most important ceremony which marks the beginning of the next stage of
life—the stage of youth—is Upanayana. Upanayana is a very important Samskara. It
is a landmark in the life of the child. It is his second or spiritual birth. The word Upanayana
means bringing near.
The boy is brought near his Guru, spiritual teacher. The preceptor invests him with the
sacred thread, Yajnopavita, and initiates him by giving him the Gayatri Mantra, and gives
him a staff. This is the beginning of Brahmacharya Asrama, during which
Brahmacharya—perfect or entire celibacy—is enjoined. He is to begin the life of
study. The initiation makes him a Dvija, twice-born. The father and the mother gave birth
to him from mutual desire. This is his physical birth. Initiation into Gayatri Mantra is
his another, true birth. According to Yajnavalkya, the Upanayana ceremony is performed at
the eighth year for a Brahmana, eleventh for a Kshatriya and twelfth for a Vaisya. Manu
gives the age at the fifth year for a Brahmana, the sixth for a Kshatriya and the eighth
for a Vaisya.
Significance of the Sacred Thread and Other Symbols
The sacred thread or Yajnopavita consists of three threads knotted together. He who
wears the thread should have a triple control, over his mind, speech and
body—thought, word and deed. The holy thread signifies the various triads which exist
in the world, viz., Sat, Chit and Ananda; creation, preservation and destruction; the
three states of waking, dreaming and deep sleep; the three qualities of Sattva, Rajas and
Tamas; the Trimurtis Brahma, Vishnu and Siva; etc.
The staff signifies that the student should have control over his thoughts, words and
actions. He who practises control over his thoughts, words and actions, and he who
practises Brahmacharya in thought, word and deed, attains perfection.
The boy wears a Kaupina, a small yellow cloth and a girdle of Munja grass. The Acharya
puts on him a deerskin. The new yellow cloth represents the new body. Yellow colour is a
symbol of spirituality. Wearing of Kaupina indicates that the boy should lead a pure life
of perfect celibacy. The girdle is wound round thrice. This indicates that the boy has to
study the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The deer-skin represents the ascetic
life he should lead.
Samavartana
Then comes the end of the student stage, the Samavartana. The student, having completed
the Vedic studies and the Vratas, presents his preceptor with a gift and obtains
permission to take the formal bath which marks the close of his student-career. He returns
home and performs the Samavartana, the returning ceremony. He is now ready to marry and
enter the second stage or Grihastha Asrama, the life of a householder.
Vivaha
Vivaha is marriage or entry into the second Asrama. The life of the householder begins.
Now he takes up his duties as man and pays his spiritual debts by sacrifice, by study and
by procreating children. The bridegroom tells the bride: “I take your hand for good
fortune.” They walk round the sacred fire hand-in-hand. The bride sacrifices grains
in the fire and prays: “May my husband live long. May my relations increase.”
The Last Two Stages Of Life
There are two more stages, viz., Vanaprastha and Sannyasa, with their
rites.
Man withdraws himself from all worldly activities, retires into the forest and prepares
himself for taking Sannyasa. This is the life of a Vanaprastha.
A Sannyasin renounces the world and leads a life of study and meditation by living on
alms.
Pretakarma is funeral rite. When a man dies, the funeral ceremonies are performed by
his son and heir.
The Pancha Mahayajnas
There are five great daily sacrifices that are to be performed by every
householder. They are: (i) Brahma Yajna, called also Veda Yajna, sacrifice to Brahman or
the Vedas or the sages; (ii) Deva Yajna, sacrifice to the celestials; (iii) Pitri Yajna,
sacrifice to the manes; (iv) Bhuta Yajna, sacrifice to all the creatures; and (v) Manushya
Yajna, sacrifice to men.
The performance of these five Yajnas is conducive to the spiritual evolution or growth
of a man. He gradually learns that he is not a separate entity or isolated creature or
isolated unit, but is a part of a great whole. He obtains knowledge by studying the sacred
scriptures written by great Rishis. He gets help from his friends, relatives and
fellow-beings. He parents gave his physical body. His body is nourished by the milk of
cows, grains, vegetables and fruits. The five elements help him. He cannot live without
oxygen and water. The Devas and the Pitris bless him. Therefore, he owes a fivefold debt
to Nature. He must pay back his debt by performing these five sacrifices daily. Further,
numerous insects are killed by him unconsciously during walking, sweeping, grinding,
cooking, etc. This sin is removed by performance of these sacrifices.
The Five Yajnas
The Rishis, the Devas, the Pitris, the Bhutas and the guests expect help from the
householders. Hence, they should perform these five sacrifices daily. Teaching and study
of scriptures is Brahma Yajna; Tarpana or offering of water to the ancestors, and
Sraaddha, form Pitri Yajna: Homa or oblations into the fire is Deva Yajna; Bali or
offering of food to all creatures is Bhuta Yajna; and hospitality to guests is Manushya
Yajna or Atithi Yajna.
Brahma Yajna or Rishi Yajna
Every man should study daily the sacred scriptures. He should share the knowledge with
others. This is Brahma Yajna or Rishi Yajna. By so doing, he pays the debt to Rishis.
Deva Yajna
Lord Krishna says in the Bhagavad-Gita: “Having, in ancient times, emanated
mankind together with sacrifice, the Lord of Creation said, ‘By this shall ye
propagate; be this to you the fulfiller of desires. With this, nourish ye the shining
ones; and may the shining ones nourish ye. Thus nourishing one another, ye shall reap the
highest good. For, nourished by sacrifice, the shining ones shall bestow on you the
enjoyments you desire. A thief verily is he who enjoyeth what is given by them without
returning them anything. The righteous, who eat the remains of the sacrifice, are freed
from all sins; but the unpious who cook for their own sake, they verily eat sin,”
(Ch. III-10, 11, 12, 13). Manu says: “Let a man ever engage in the study of the Vedas
and in the rites of the Devas; engaging in the rites of the Vedas, he supports the movable
and the immovable kingdoms.” These sacrifices turn the wheel of life in accordance
with the divine will and thus help the evolution of man and the worlds.
Pitri Yajna
Offering libations, etc., to the forefathers, regularly, is Pitri Yajna.
Bhuta-Yajna
Distribution of food to cows, dogs, birds, fish, etc., is Bhuta Yajna.
Manushya Yajna
Feeding the poor is Manushya Yajna. Feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, giving
shelter to the homeless, comforting the distressed, etc., are all forms of Manushya Yajna.
Any kind of service to the suffering humanity is Manushya Yajna. Feeding a guest is
Manushya Yajna.
Benefits Of The Pancha Mahayajnas
By daily doing such acts of kindness and sympathy, man develops mercy. Hatred vanishes.
His hard egoistic heart is gradually softened. He cultivates cosmic love. His heart
expands. He has a wider outlook on life. He tries to feel his oneness with all beings. His
old feeling of separateness on account of selfishness and egoism is gradually thinned and
eventually eradicated. He learns that he can be happy only by making others happy, by
serving others, by helping others, by removing the sufferings of others and by sharing
what he has with others. The five great daily sacrifices teach man his relations with his
superiors, his equals and his inferiors.
Man has no separate individual existence. He is connected with the world. He is like a
bead in the rosary. His whole life must be a life of sacrifice and duties. Then only he
will have rapid evolution. Then only he will realise the supreme bliss of the Eternal.
Then only he will free himself from the round of births and deaths and attain immortality.
Sraaddha And Tarpana
Sraaddha is the name of the ceremonies performed by relatives to help the Jiva who
has cast off his physical body in death. A Jiva who has cast off his physical sheath is
called a Preta. The part of the Sraaddha performed to help him at this stage is called the
Preta Kriya.
How Sraaddha And Tarpana Benefit The Departed Souls
Gifts to deserving Brahmanas for the benefit of the Pitris, in the proper time and
place and with faith, are known as Sraaddha. Sraaddha gives satisfaction to the Pitris. By
the offering of the sixteen Sraaddhas, the son helps his father to dwell in joy with the
Pitris. The son should perform the Sapindikarana rites for his father. Performance of
Sraaddha and Tarpana relieves the hunger and thirst of the departed soul during its
journey to the Pitri Loka.
Those who go to hell are extremely oppressed by hunger and thirst. Performance of
Sraaddha and offerings of rice and oblations to them, relieve their sufferings. Hence,
performance of Sraaddha is indispensable. Those who dwell in heaven also get satisfaction,
strength and nourishment.
The Advantages Of Cremation
Cremation is the best way of destroying a dead body. This is highly beneficial for the
departed soul. If the body is not burnt; the Jiva is linked to the earth. The soul hovers
round or hangs about the dead body on account of Moha or attachment to the physical body.
Its journey to the celestial regions is interfered with. The vibrations set up by the
recitation of Mantras and the offerings and oblations of water, bring solace and comfort
to the departed soul. The Sapindikarana ceremony helps the Jiva to pass from the Preta
Loka to the Pitri Loka. He is then enrolled among the Pitris or the ancestors. The son
walks three times round the dead body of his father before fire is set to the pyre and
sprinkles water once, reciting the Mantra: “Go away. Withdraw and depart from
here.” The bones are collected on the next day and thrown into a river. Those who can
afford take them to Benares or Haridwar and throw them into the Ganga. It is believed that
the soul whose mortal remains are consigned to the sacred Ganga attains to the higher
regions of spiritual light and splendour and, in the end, salvation.
The Two Classes Of Pitris
Immediately after death, the Jiva obtains the Ativahika body which is made up of fire,
air and ether. Later on, it may have a Yatana Deha for suffering the tortures of hell if
it had done great sins on the earth-plane, or a celestial body for enjoying the pleasures
of heaven if it had done virtuous actions while living in the world. In the Yatana Deha,
the air-element preponderates; while, in the celestial body, the element of fire is
dominant. It takes one year for the Jiva to reach the Pitri Loka.
There are two classes of Pitris, viz., the celestial Pitris who are the lords of
the Pitri Loka, and the human Pitris who go there after death. Brahma is the
paternal grandfather of all. Kasyapa and the other Prajapatis are also Pitris, as they are
the original progenitors. Pitri Loka or the Abode of the Pitris is also called by the name
Bhuvar Loka.
The word Pitris primarily means the immediate ancestors, viz., father, mother,
etc. Sraaddha proper is performed for three generations of Pitris, or to all Pitris. Three
cakes are offered to the father, the grandfather and the great grandfather. Two Brahmins
are fed first. Seven generations can mutually influence one another by the giving and
receiving of food.
Pitripaksha And Mahalaya Amavasya
The dark fortnight of the month of Asvayuja is known as the Pitripaksha or the
fortnight of the month specially sanctified for offering oblations to the departed
ancestors. And the last day, the day of the new moon, is considered as the most important
day in the year for performing obsequies and like rites.
Now, ordinarily, the orthodox Hindus offer oblation of
water—Tarpana-Arghya—to the departed every new-moon day. The prescribed rites
are also performed every year on the anniversary of the day of death. This is the Sraaddha
ceremony. What, then, is the special import of these observances particularly during the
Asvayuja Krishna Paksha? The reason is that such ceremonies done during this fortnight
have a very special effect. The offerings reach the Pitris immediately and directly, due
to a boon from Lord Yama. The occasion for the boon arose as follows:
Origin Of The Pitripaksha
A Story from the Mahabharata
The renowned hero of the Mahabharata, Danavira Karna, when he left the mortal coil,
ascended to the higher worlds and reached the region of the heroes. There, the fruit of
his extraordinary charity while upon earth came to him multiplied thousandfold, but it
came to him in the form of immense piles of gold and silver. Karna had done limitless
charity of wealth, but had neglected to do Anna-Dana. Thus he found himself in the midst
of wealth and plenty, but with no food to appease him. He prayed to Lord Yama. The Great
Ruler responded to Karna’s prayer and granted him a respite for fourteen days to
return to the earth-plane once again and make up for his former neglect. Karna came down
from the Mrityu Loka, and for fourteen days, he fed the Brahmins and the poor, and made
offerings of water, etc. He performed the prescribed rites also on the last day. On his
return once again to the higher world, the effect of Karna’s observances during this
fortnight removed all his wants there. The time of this occurrence was the dark fortnight
of Asvayuja.
Due to the grace of Lord Yama, it came to be so ordained that such rites done at this
particular period acquired the following unique merits. Offerings made at this time
reached all departed souls, whether they were kins directly in the line of the offerer or
not. Even those who died without progeny received these oblations given on this
Pitripaksha Amavasya day. All those who had failed to do deeds of charity and Anna-Dana
and were thus denied these comforts in the Pitri Loka, benefited by these ceremonies.
Those deceased whose date of death is not known and whose annual Sraaddha cannot be done,
they also get these oblations of Pitripaksha. Souls whose life was cut off by violent,
accidental or unnatural death and to whom, therefore, offerings cannot reach in the
ordinary course, to them, too, the Pitripaksha offerings reach directly. All these the
boon of Lord Yama made possible from the time the great Karna performed the
Asvayuja-Paksha rites. The Hindus now observe this Paksha with great faith, with strict
regulation, taking bath thrice, with partial fasting, etc. On the newmoon day, Sarvapitri
Amavasya, the full rites are done and plenty of charity given.
Propitiation Of Departed Spirits
The day of Mahalaya Amavasya is a day of great significance and importance to all
Hindus. It is the annual festival for propitiating the spirits of our ancestors, with
devout prayers for peace. The Hindu Itihasas say, that on the Mahalaya Amavasya, there is
a conjunction of the sun and the moon and that the sun enters the sign Virgo (Kanya). On
this day, the departed manes, i.e., our ancestors, leave their abode in the world of Yama
and come down to the world of mortals and occupy the houses of their descendants.
The fortnight preceding the new moon is specially consecrated for the propitiation of
such departed spirits. The ceremonies performed in honour of the manes or ancestors during
each day of this fortnight are considered to be equal to those performed at Gaya. The
principle in all such rites is the worship of the departed souls and the satisfaction of
their wishes so that they might be in peace during the rest of the year.
Navaratri Or The Nine-Day Worship Of Devi
Religious observances, traditional worship and Vratas have, at times, more than one
significance. Apart from being the adoration of the Divine, they are commemorative of
stirring bygone events, allegoric when interpreted from the occult standpoint, and are
significant pointers guiding the Jiva on his path to Realisation.
Outwardly, the nine days’ worship of Devi or the Mother, known as Navaratri Puja,
is in the nature of a Vijaya-Utsava. The nine days’ triumphs are offered to the
Mother for Her successful struggle with the formidable demons led by Sumbha and Nisumbha.
But, to the spiritual aspirant in his life of Sadhana, the particular division of the
Navaratri into sets of three days to adore different aspects of the Supreme Goddess has
got a very sublime, yet thoroughly practical, truth to reveal. In its cosmic aspect, it
epitomises the stages of the evolution of man into God, from Jivahood to Sivahood. In its
individual import, it shows the course that his spiritual Sadhana should take.
Now, the central purpose of existence is to recognise your eternal identity with the
Supreme Spirit. It is to grow into the image of the Divine. The Supreme One embodies the
highest perfection. It is spotless purity, Niranjana. To recognise your identity with
That, to attain union with That, is verily to grow into the very likeness of the Divine.
The Sadhaka has, therefore, as the initial step, to get rid of the countless impurities
and the undivine elements, that have come to cling to him in his embodied state. Then he
has to acquire lofty virtues and auspicious divine qualities. Thus purified and rendered
full of Sattva, Knowledge flashes upon him like the brilliant rays of the sun upon the
crystal waters of a perfectly calm lake.
Worship Of Durga
The Eradication of Vices
This process of Sadhana implies resolute will, determined effort and arduous struggle.
In other words, strength, infinite Sakti, is the prime necessity. It is the Divine Mother,
Supreme Sakti of Brahman, that has to operate through the aspirant. On the first three
days, Mother is adored as Power, Force—Durga, the Terrible. You pray to Mother Durga
to destroy all your impurities, your vices, your defects. She is to fight with and
annihilate the baser animal qualities in the Sadhaka, the lower Asura in his nature. Also,
she is the power that protects your Sadhana from its many dangers and pitfalls. Thus, the
first three days, marking the first stage of destruction of Mala (impurities) and
determined effort and struggle to root out the evil Vasanas in your mind, are set apart
for the worship of the Destructive Aspect of the Mother.
Worship Of Lakshmi
The Cultivation Of Virtues
Once you have accomplished your task on overcoming the negative side, that of breaking
down the impure Vasanas, propensities and old habits, the next step is to build up a
sublime spiritual personality, to acquire positive qualities in place of the eliminated
Asuric qualities. The divine qualities—Daivi Sampat—that Lord Krishna enumerates
in the Bhagavad-Gita have to be acquired. The Sadhaka must cultivate and develop all the
auspicious qualities. He has to pile up immense spiritual wealth to enable him to pay the
price for the rare gem of divine wisdom (Jnana Ratna). If this development of the opposite
qualities (Pratipaksha Bhavana) is not undertaken in right earnest, the old Asuric nature
will raise its head again and again. Hence, this stage is as important in an
aspirant’s career as the previous one. The essential difference is that while the
former is a ruthless, determined annihilation of the filthy, egoistic, lower self, the
latter is an orderly, steady, calm and serene effort to develop purity. This pleasanter
side of the aspirant’s Sadhana is depicted by the worship of Mother Lakshmi. She
bestows on Her devotees the inexhaustible wealth or Daivi Sampat. Lakshmi is the
Sampat-Dayini aspect of Brahman. She is Purity Itself. Thus, worship of Goddess Lakshmi is
performed during the second set of three days.
Worship Of Sarasvati
The Dawn Of Supreme Wisdom
Once the aspirant succeeds in routing out the evil propensities and in developing
Sattvic, pure, divine qualities, he becomes an Adhikari. He is ready now to receive the
Light of Supreme Wisdom. He is fit to obtain Divine Knowledge. At this stage comes the
devout worship of Sri Sarasvati, who is Divine Knowledge personified, the embodiment of
Brahma Jnana. The sound of Her celestial Vina awakens the notes of the sublime Mahavakyas
and the Pranava. She bestows the knowledge of the Supreme Nada and then gives full
Atma-Jnana as represented by Her pure dazzling snow-white apparel. To propitiate Sri
Sarasvati, the giver of Jnana, is therefore, the third stage.
The tenth day—Vijaya Dasami—marks the triumphant ovation of the Jiva at
having attained Jivanmukti through the descent of Knowledge by the grace of Goddess
Sarasvati. The Jiva rests in its own supreme Self of Sat-Chit-Ananda
(Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute). This day celebrates the victory, the achievement of
the Goal. The banner of victory flies aloft. Lo! I am He! I am He! Chidananda Rupah
Sivoham, Sivoham; Chidananda Rupah Sivoham, Sivoham.
An Arrangement That Ensures Spiritual Success
This arrangement has also a special significance in the aspirant’s spiritual
evolution. It marks the stages of evolution which are indispensable for every Sadhaka,
through which every one should pass. One naturally leads to the other, and to
short-circuit this would inevitably result in a miserable failure. Nowadays, many ignorant
Sadhakas aim straight at the appropriation of Knowledge without the preliminaries of
purification and acquisition of Daivi Sampat, and complain that they are not progressing
in the path. How can they? Knowledge will not descend till the impurities are washed out
and purity is developed. The Sattvic plant can grow on no impure soil.
Follow this arrangement and your efforts will be attended with sure success. This is
your path. No other path is known for salvation. Destroy all evil qualities and develop
their opposite virtues. By this process you would soon bring yourself up to that
perfection which would culminate in the identity with Brahman, which is your Goal. Then
all knowledge will be yours, you will be omniscient and omnipotent, and you will feel your
omnipresence. You will see yourself in all. You will be a Jivanmukta. You shall achieve
eternal victory over the wheel of birth and death, over the demon of Samsara. No more of
pain, no more of misery, no more of birth, no more of death for you. Victory, victory be
yours!
Glory unto the Divine Mother! Let Her take you, step by step, to the top of the
spiritual ladder and unite you with the Lord!!
CHAPTER 7
HINDU WORSHIP
Worship Or Upasana
Worship is the expression of devotion, reverence and love to the Lord, of keen
yearning to be united with Him and of spiritual thirsting to hold conscious communion with
Him. The devotee prays to the Lord for granting him intense devotion and removing the veil
of ignorance. He pines for His benign grace. He constantly remembers His Name. He repeats
His Mantra. He sings His praise. He does Kirtana. He hears and recites His Lilas. He lives
in His Dhama in the company of His devotees. He meditates on His form, His nature, His
attributes and His Lilas. He visualises the form of the Lord with closed eyes and enjoys
supreme peace and bliss.
Worship is the effort on the part of the Upasaka, i.e., he who does Upasana or worship,
to reach the proximity or presence of God or the Supreme Self. Upasana literally
means sitting near God. Upasana is approaching the chosen ideal or object of
worship by meditating on it in accordance with the teachings of the Sastras and the Guru
and dwelling steadily in the current of that one thought, like a thread of oil poured from
one vessel to another (Tailadharavat). It consists of all those observances and practices,
physical and mental, by which the aspirant or Jijnasu makes a steady progress in the realm
of spirituality and eventually realises in himself—in his own heart—the presence
of Godhead.
Benefits Of Worship
Worship of the Lord purifies the heart, generates harmonious vibrations, steadies
the mind, purifies and ennobles the emotions, harmonises the five sheaths, and eventually
leads to communion, fellowship or God-realisation.
Upasana helps the devotee to sit near the Lord or to commune with Him. It fills the
mind with Suddha Bhava and Prema or pure love for the Lord. It gradually transmutes man
into a divine being.
Upasana changes the mental substance, destroys Rajas and Tamas and fills the mind with
Sattva or purity. Upasana destroys Vasanas, Trishnas, egoism, lust, hatred, anger, etc.
Upasana turns the mind inward and induces Antarmukha Vritti. It eventually brings the
devotee face to face with the Lord, frees the devotee from the wheel of births and deaths,
and confers on him immortality and freedom.
The mind becomes that on which it meditates in accordance with the analogy of the wasp
and the caterpillar (Bhramara-Kitaka Nyaya). Just as you think, so you become. This is the
immutable psychological law. There is a mysterious or inscrutable power (Achintya Sakti)
in Upasana which makes the meditator and the meditated identical.
You will find in the Bhagavad-Gita: “But by devotion to Me alone, I may thus be
perceived, O Arjuna; and known and seen in essence and entered, O Parantapa” (Ch. XI,
54).
Patanjali Maharshi emphasises in various places in his Raja Yoga Sutras, on the
importance of Upasana. For even a Raja Yogi, Upasana is necessary. He has his own Ishta
Devata or guiding Deity—Yogesvara Krishna or Lord Siva. Self-surrender to God is an
Anga (limb) of Raja Yoga and Kriya Yoga. Patanjali says: “One can enter into Samadhi
through Upasana.”
Of all those things which are conducive to spiritual advancement, Adhyatmic uplift and
the acquisition of Dharma, Upasana is one which is not only indispensably requisite, but
eminently beneficial to all classes and grades of people. It is easy too.
Eating, drinking, sleeping, fear, copulation, etc., are common in brutes and human
beings, but that which makes one a real man or a God-man is the religious consciousness.
He who leads a mere outward sensual life without doing any Upasana is an animal only,
though he wears outwardly the form of a human being.
Saguna-Upasana And Nirguna-Upasana
Upasana is of two kinds, viz., Pratika-Upasana and Ahamgraha-Upasana. Pratika
means a symbol. Pratika-Upasana is Saguna-Upasana. Ahamgraha-Upasana is
Nirguna-Upasana or meditation on the formless and attributeless Akshara or transcendental
Brahman. Meditation on idols, Saligrama, pictures of Lord Rama, Lord Krishna, Lord Siva,
Gayatri Devi, etc., is Pratika-Upasana. The blue expansive sky, all-pervading ether,
all-pervading light of the sun, etc., are also Pratikas for abstract meditation.
Saguna-Upasana is concrete meditation. Nirguna-Upasana is abstract meditation.
Hearing of the Lilas of the Lord, Kirtana or singing His Names, constant remembrance of
the Lord (Smarana), service of His feet, offering flowers, prostration, prayer, chanting
of Mantra, self-surrender, service of Bhagavatas, service of humanity and country with
Narayana-Bhava, etc., constitute Saguna-Upasana.
Chanting of Om with Atma-Bhava, service of humanity and country with Atma-Bhava, mental
Japa of Om with Atma or Brahma Bhava, meditation on Soham or Sivoham or on the Mahavakyas
such as Aham Brahma Asmi or Tat Tvam Asi after sublating the illusory
vehicles through ‘Neti, Neti’ doctrine, constitute Ahamgraha-Upasana or
Nirguna-Upasana.
Saguna-Upasana is Bhakti Yoga or the Yoga of Devotion. Nirguna-Upasana is Jnana Yoga or
the Yoga of Knowledge. Worshippers of Saguna (the qualified) Brahman and of Nirguna (the
unqualified) Brahman reach the same goal. But, the latter path is very hard, because the
aspirant has to give up attachment to the body (Dehabhimana) from the very beginning of
his spiritual practice. The Akshara or the Imperishable is very hard to reach for those
who are attached to their bodies. Further, it is extremely difficult to fix the mind on
the formless and attributeless Brahman. Contemplation on the Akshara or Nirguna Brahman
demands a very sharp, one-pointed and subtle intellect.
The Bhavas In Bhakti Yoga
The Yoga of Bhakti or Devotion is much easier than Jnana Yoga or philosophical
meditations. In Bhakti Yoga, the devotee establishes a near and dear relationship with the
Lord. He cultivates slowly any one of the six Bhavas according to his temperament, taste
and capacity.
Santa Bhava, Dasya Bhava, Sakhya Bhava, Vatsalya Bhava, Kanta Bhava and Madhurya Bhava
are the six kinds of attributes of devotees or Bhavas towards God. The Bhavas differ in
type and intensity of feeling. The different Bhavas are arranged in order of their
intensity. Dhruva and Prahlada had the feeling of a child to its parents. This is Santa
Bhava. In Dasya Bhava, the devotee behaves like a servant. His Lord is his master. Hanuman
is an ideal servant of God. In Sakhya Bhava, there is a sense of equality. Arjuna and
Kuchela had this Bhava. In Vatsalya Bhava, the devotee looks upon the Lord as his own
child. Yasoda had this Bhava for Sri Krishna. Kausalya had this Bhava for Sri Rama. Kanta
Bhava is the love of the wife towards the husband. Sita and Rukmini had this Bhava. The
culmination is reached in Madhurya Bhava. The lover and the Beloved become one through the
intensity of love. Radha and Mira had this type of love.
The last Bhava is the highest culmination of Bhakti. It is merging or absorption in the
Lord. The devotee adores the Lord. He constantly remembers Him. He sings His Name
(Kirtana). He speaks of His glories. He repeats His Name. He chants His Mantra. He prays
and prostrates. He hears His Lilas. He does total, ungrudging, unconditional surrender,
obtains His grace, holds communion with Him and gets absorbed in Him eventually.
In Madhurya Bhava, there is the closest relationship between the devotee and the Lord.
There is no sensuality in Kanta and Madhurya Bhavas. There is no tinge of carnality in
them. Passionate people cannot understand these two Bhavas as their minds are saturated
with passion and lower sexual appetite. Sufistic saints also have the Bhava of lover and
the Beloved, Madhurya Bhava. The Gita Govinda written by Jaya Deva is full of Madhurya
Rasa. The language of love which the mystic uses cannot be comprehended by worldly
persons. Only Gopis, Radha, Mira, Tukaram, Narada, Hafiz and similar other great devotees
of the Lord can understand this language.
Puja And Ishta-Devata
Puja is the common term for ritual worship, of which there are
numerous synonyms such as Archana, Vandana, Bhajana, etc., though some of these stress
certain aspects of it. The object of worship is the Ishta Devata or guiding Deity or the
particular form of the Deity whom the devotee worships—Narayana or Vishnu as such, or
His forms as Rama and Krishna in the case of Vaishnavas, Siva in His eight forms in the
case of Saivas and Devi in the case of Saktas.
The devotee selects sometimes his Kuladeva or Kuladevi, family Deva or Devi, for his
worship. Sometimes, the Devata is chosen for him by his Guru or spiritual preceptor.
Sometimes, he himself chooses that Devata which most appeals to him. This form is his
Ishta Devata.
An object is used in the outer Puja such as an image (Pratima), a picture, or an emblem
such as Saligrama in the case of Vishnu worship or Linga in the case of worship of Siva.
Whilst all things may be the objects of worship, choice is naturally made of those
objects which, by reason of their effect on the mind, are more fitted for it. An image or
one of the useful emblems, is likely to raise in the mind of the worshipper the thought of
a Devata. Saligrama stone induces easily concentration of mind. Everybody has got
predilection for a symbol, emblem or image. Idol or Murti (Vigraha), sun, fire, water,
Ganga, Saligrama and Linga are all symbols or Pratikas of God which help the aspirants to
attain one-pointedness of mind and purity of heart. These are all personal inclinations in
the worshipper due to his belief in their special efficacy for him. Psychologically, all
this means that a particular mind finds that it works best in the direction desired by
means of particular instruments or emblems or images.
The vast bulk of humanity are either of impure or of weak mind. Therefore, the object
of worship must be pure for these people. The objects that are capable of exciting lust
and dislike must be avoided. But, a higher, advanced Sadhaka who has a pure mind and who
sees the divine presence everywhere and in everything, can worship any kind of object.
In Puja, an image or picture representing some divine form is used as the object of
worship. The image is adored. All image, a Sila or Vigraha or Murti, represents the
particular Lord who is invoked in it. A Linga represents Siva. It represents the
secondless, formless Brahman. The Sruti says: “Ekamevadvitiyam Brahma—The
Brahman is one alone, without a second.” There is no duality here. A Linga is shining
and attractive to the eyes. It helps concentration. Ravana propitiated Siva and obtained
boons by worshipping the Linga.
A Saligrama is an idol of Vishnu. Saligrama is the symbol of Vishnu. There are images
of Sri Rama, Sri Krishna, Karttikeya, Ganesa, Hanuman, Dattatreya, Sita, Lakshmi, Parvati,
Durga, Kali, Sarasvati, etc., according to the taste of the particular devotee.
The images of Vishnu and of His Avataras, and the images of Sakti and Siva, are the
popular idols that are worshipped both in temples and in the houses. The idols in the
temples of Tirupati, Pandarpur, Palani, Katirgama, etc., are powerful Deities. They are
Pratyaksha Devatas. They grant boons to the devotees, cure their ailments and give
Darsana. Wonderful Lilas are associated with these Deities. There is no polytheism in
Hinduism. Siva, Vishnu, Brahma and Sakti are different aspects of one Lord.
God reveals Himself to His devotees in a variety of ways. He assumes the very form
which the devotee has chosen for his worship. If you worship Him as Lord Hari with four
hands, He will come to you as Hari. If you adore Him as Siva, He will give you Darsana as
Siva. If you worship Him as Mother Durga or Kali, He will come to you as Durga or Kali. If
you worship Him as Lord Rama, Lord Krishna or Lord Dattatreya, He will come to you as
Rama, Krishna or Dattatreya. If you worship Him as Christ or Allah, He will come to you as
Christ or Allah.
You may worship Lord Siva or Lord Hari, Lord Ganesa or Lord Subrahmanya or Lord
Dattatreya, or anyone of the Avataras, Lord Rama or Lord Krishna, Sarasvati or Lakshmi,
Gayatri or Kali, Durga or Chandi. All are aspects of one Isvara or Lord. Under whatever
name and form, it is Isvara who is adored. Worship goes to the Indweller, the Lord in the
form. It is ignorance to think that one form is superior to another. All forms are one and
the same. Siva, Vishnu, Gayatri, Rama, Krishna, Devi and Brahman are one. All are adoring
the same Isvara. The differences are only differences of names due to differences in the
worshippers, but not in the object of adoration. It is only out of ignorance that
different religionists and different sects fight and quarrel amongst themselves.
The Philosophy And Significance Of Idol-Worship
The Idol—A Prop For The Spiritual Neophyte
Idol is a support for the neophyte. It is a prop of his spiritual childhood. A form or
image is necessary for worship in the beginning. It is an external symbol of God for
worship. It is a reminder of God. The material image calls up the mental idea. Steadiness
of mind is obtained by image-worship. The worshipper will have to associate the ideas of
infinity, omnipotence, omniscience, purity, perfection, freedom, holiness, truth and
omnipresence. It is not possible for all to fix the mind on the Absolute or the Infinite.
A concrete form is necessary for the vast majority for practising concentration. To behold
God everywhere and to practise the presence of God is not possible for the ordinary man.
Idol-worship is the easiest form of worship for the modern man.
A symbol is absolutely indispensable for fixing the mind. The mind wants a prop to lean
upon. It cannot have a conception of the Absolute in the initial stages. Without the help
of some external aid, in the initial stages, the mind cannot be centralised. In the
beginning, concentration or meditation is not possible without a symbol.
Everyone An Idol-Worshipper
There is no reference to worship of idols in the Vedas. The Puranas and the Agamas give
descriptions of idol-worship both in the houses and in the temples. Idol-worship is not
peculiar to Hinduism. Christians worship the Cross. They have the image of the Cross in
their mind. The Mohammedans keep the image of the Kaba stone when they kneel and do
prayers. The people of the whole world, save a few Yogis and Vedantins, are all
worshippers of idols. They keep some image or the other in the mind.
The mental image also is a form of idol. The difference is not one of kind, but only
one of degree. All worshippers, however intellectual they may be, generate a form in the
mind and make the mind dwell on that image.
Everyone is an idol-worshipper. Pictures, drawings, etc., are only forms of Pratima or
the idol. A gross mind needs a concrete symbol as a prop or Alambana and a subtle mind
requires an abstract symbol. Even a Vedantin has the symbol OM for fixing the wandering
mind. It is not only the pictures or images in stone and in wood, that are idols but
dialectics and leaders also become idols. So, why condemn idolatry?
A Medium For Establishing Communion With God
Idols are not the idle fancies of sculptors, but shining channels through which the
heart of the devotee is attracted to and flows towards God. Though the image is
worshipped, the devotee feels the presence of the Lord in it and pours out his devotion
unto it. It is the appalling ignorance of the modern sensual man that clouds his vision
and prevents him from seeing Divinity in lovely and enchanting idols of His form. The very
scientific advances of this century ought to convince you of the glory of idol-worship.
How are the songsters and orators confined to a small box-like thing to be called a radio?
It is a mere piece of a mechanical lifeless structure which breaks into a thousand pieces
if you throw it away violently; and yet, if you know how to handle it, you can hear
through it, the music that is being played several thousands of miles away and the
discourse that is being delivered in the remotest part of the globe. Even as you can catch
the sound-waves of people all over the world through the radio receiving set, it is
possible to commune with the all-pervading Lord through the medium of an idol. The
divinity of the all-pervading God is vibrant in every atom of creation. There is not a
speck of space where He is not. Why do you then say that He is not in the idols?
There are others who would glibly say: “Oh, God is all-pervading formless Being.
How can He be confined to this idol?” Are these people ever conscious of His
omnipresence? Do they always see Him and Him alone in everything? No. It is their ego that
prevents them from bowing to the idols of God and, with that motive, put this lame excuse
forward!
Empty vessels only make much sound. A practical man who does meditation and worship,
who is full of knowledge and real devotion, keeps always silence. He influences and
teaches others through silence. He only knows whether a Murti is necessary in the
beginning for concentration or not.
However intellectual one may be, he cannot concentrate without the help of some symbol
in the beginning. An intellectual and learned person, on account of his pride and vanity
only says: “I do not like a Murti. I do not wish to concentrate on a form.” He
cannot concentrate on the formless one. He thinks that people will laugh at him when they
come to know that he is meditating on a form. He never does any meditation on the formless
one. He simply talks and argues and poses. He wastes his life in unnecessary discussions
only. An ounce of practice is better than tons of theories. Intellect is a hindrance in
the vast majority of intellectual persons. They say that the existence of Brahman is a
guess-work, Samadhi is a bluff of the mind and Self-realisation is an imagination of the
Vedantins. Deluded souls! They are steeped in ignorance. They are carried away by their
secular knowledge which is mere husk when compared to the Knowledge of the Self. There is
no hope of salvation for such people. First, their wrong Samskaras should be flushed by
good Samskaras through Satsanga. Then only they will realise their mistakes. May the Lord
bestow on them clear understanding and thirsting for real knowledge!
A Symbol Of God
Pratima, the idol, is a substitute or symbol. The image in a temple, though it is made
of stone, wood or metal, is precious for a devotee as it bears the mark of his Lord, as it
stands for something which he holds holy and eternal. A flag is only a small piece of
painted cloth, but it stands for a soldier for something that he holds very dear. He is
prepared to give up his life in defending his flag. Similarly, the image is very dear to a
devotee. It speaks to him in its own language of devotion. Just as the flag arouses
martial valour in the soldier, so also the image arouses devotion in the devotee. The Lord
is superimposed on the image and the image generates divine thoughts in the worshipper.
A piece of ordinary white paper or coloured paper has no value. You throw it away. But,
if there is the stamp of the Government on the paper (currency note), you keep it safe in
your money-purse or trunk. Even so, an ordinary piece of stone has no value for you. You
throw it away. But, if you behold the stone Murti of Lord Krishna at Pandarpur or any
other Murti in shrines, you bow your head with folded hands, because there is the stamp of
the Lord on the stone. The devotee superimposes on the stone Murti his own Beloved Lord
and all His attributes.
When you worship an image, you do not say: “This image has come from Jaipur. It
was brought by Prabhu Singh. Its weight is 50 lbs. It is made of white marble. It has cost
me Rs. 500/-.” You superimpose all the attributes of the Lord on the image and pray:
“O Antaryamin (Inner Ruler)! You are all-pervading. You are omnipotent, omniscient,
all-merciful. You are the source for everything. You are self-existent. You are
Sat-Chit-Ananda. You are eternal, unchanging. You are the Life of my life, Soul of my
soul! Give me light and knowledge! Let me dwell in Thee for ever.” When your devotion
and meditation become intense and deep, you do not see the stone image. You behold the
Lord only who is Chaitanya. Image-worship is very necessary for beginners.
An Integral Part Of Virat
For a beginner, Pratima is an absolute necessity. By worshipping an idol, Isvara is
pleased. The Pratima is made up of five elements. Five elements constitute the body of the
Lord. The idol remains an idol, but the worship goes to the Lord.
If you shake hands with a man, he is highly pleased. You have touched only a small part
of his body and yet he is happy. He smiles and welcomes you. Even so, the Lord is highly
pleased when a small portion of His Virat (cosmic) body is worshipped. An idol is a part
of the body of the Lord. The whole world is His body, Virat form. The devotion goes to the
Lord. The worshipper superimposes on the image the Lord and all His attributes. He does
Shodasopachara for the idol, the sixteen kinds of paying respects or service to the Lord.
The presence of the Deity is invoked (Avahana). Then a seat (Asana) is offered. Then the
feet are washed (Padya). Then offering of water is given (Arghya). Arghya is offering
hospitality. Then comes bathing (Snana). Then the image is dressed (Vastra). Then comes
the investiture with the sacred thread (Yajnopavita). Then sandal paste (Chandana) is
offered. Then comes offering of flowers (Pushpa). They are the symbols of the
heart-flowers of devotion, love and reverence. Then incense is burnt (Dhupa). Then a lamp
is lit and waved before the Deity (Dipa). Then food is offered (Naivedya). Then betel is
offered (Tambula). Then camphor is burnt (Nirajana). Then Svarnapushpa (gift of gold) is
offered. In the end, the Deity is bidden farewell to (Visarjana). In these external forms
of worship, the inner love finds expression. The wandering mind is fixed now in this form
of worship. The aspirant gradually feels the nearness of the Lord. He attains purity of
heart and slowly annihilates his egoism.
To the worshipper who believes the symbol, any kind of image is the body of the Lord
under the form of stone, clay, brass, picture, Saligrama, etc. Such worship can never be
idolatry. All matter is a manifestation of God. God is present in everything which exists.
Everything is an object of worship, for all is a manifestation of God who is therein
worshipped. The very act of worship implies that the object of worship is superior and
conscious. This way of looking at things must be attained by the devotee. The untutored
mind must be trained to view things in the above manner.
Idol-Worship Develops Devotion
Idol-worship makes concentration of man simpler and easier. You can bring before your
mind’s eye the great Lilas the Lord has played in His particular Avatara in which you
view Him. This is one of the easiest modes of Self-realisation.
Just as the picture of a famous warrior evokes heroism in your heart, so also a look at
the picture of God will elevate your mind to divine heights. Just as the child develops
the maternal Bhava (mother-feeling) of the future caressing, nursing, protecting mother by
playing with its imaginary toy-child made up of rags and suckling the child in an
imaginary manner, so also the devotee develops the feeling of devotion by worshipping the
Pratima and concentrating on it.
Regular Worship Unveils The Divinity In The Idol
Regular worship (Puja) and other modes of demonstrating our inner feeling of
recognition of Divinity in the idol unveil the Divinity latent in it. This is truly a
wonder and a miracle. The picture comes to life. The idol speaks. It will answer your
questions and solve your problems. The God in you has the power to awaken the latent
Divinity in the idol. It is like a powerful lens that focuses the sun’s rays on to a
bundle of cotton. The lens is not fire and the cotton is not fire either nor can the
sun’s rays, by themselves, burn the cotton. When the three are brought together in a
particular manner, fire is generated and the cotton is burnt. Similar is the case with the
idol, the Sadhaka and the all-pervading Divinity. Puja makes the idol shine with the
divine resplendence. God is then enshrined in the idol. From here, He will protect you in
a special manner. The idol will perform miracles. The place where it is installed is at
once transformed into a temple, nay, a Vaikuntha or Kailasa in reality. Those who live in
such a place are freed from miseries, from diseases, from failures and from Samsara
itself. The awakened Divinity in the idol acts as a guardian angel blessing all,
conferring the highest good on those who bow to it.
The Image, A Mass Of Chaitanya
The idol is only a symbol of the Divine. A devotee does not behold therein a block of
stone or a mass of metal. It is an emblem of God for him. He visualises the Indwelling
Presence in the Murti or image. All the Saiva Nayanars, saints of South India, attained
God-realisation through worship of the Linga, the image of Lord Siva. For a devotee, the
image is a mass of Chaitanya or consciousness. He draws inspiration from the image. The
image guides him. It talks to him. It assumes human form to help him in a variety of ways.
The image of Lord Siva in the temple at Madurai in South India helped the fuel-cutter and
the old woman. The image in the temple at Tirupati assumed human form and gave witness in
the court to help His devotees. There are marvels and mysteries. Only the devotees
understand these.
When Idols Became Alive
For a Bhakta or a sage, there is no such thing as Jada or insentient matter.
Everything is Vasudeva or Chaitanya—Vasudevah Sarvam Iti. The devotee beholds
actually the Lord in the idol. Narsi Mehta was put to the test by a king. The king said:
“O Narsi, if you are a sincere devotee of Lord Krishna, if as you say the idol is
Lord Krishna Himself, let this idol move.” According to the prayer of Narsi Mehta,
the idol moved. The sacred bull Nandi before Siva’s idol took the food offered by
Tulsidas. The Murti played with Mira Bai. It was full of life and Chaitanya for her.
When Appayya Dikshitar went to the Tirupati temple in South India, the Vaishnavas
refused him admission. The next morning they found the Vishnu Murti in the temple changed
into Siva Murti. The Mahant was much astonished and startled, asked pardon and prayed to
Appayya Dikshitar to change the Murti again into Vishnu Murti.
Kanaka Dasa was a great devotee of Lord Krishna in Udipi, in the district of South
Kanara, in South India. He was not allowed to enter the temple on account of his low
birth. Kanaka Dasa went round the temple and saw a small window at the back of the temple.
He seated himself in front of the window. He was soon lost in singing songs in praise of
Lord Krishna. Many people gathered round him. They were very much attracted by the sweet
melody of his music and the depth of his devotion. Lord Krishna turned round to enable
Kanaka Dasa to get His Darsana. The priests were struck with wonder. Even today, pilgrims
are shown the window and the place where Kanaka Dasa sat and sang.
The Murti is the same as the Lord, for it is the vehicle of the expression of the
Mantra-Chaitanya which is the Devata. The same attitude should the devotee have in regard
to the Murti in the temple, which he would evince if the Lord would appear before him in
person and speak to him in articulate sound.
Vedanta And Idol-Worship
A pseudo-Vedantin feels himself ashamed to bow or prostrate himself before an idol in
the temple. He feels that his Advaita will evaporate if he prostrates himself. Study the
lives of the reputed Tamil saints, Appar, Sundarar, Sambandhar, etc. They had the highest
Advaitic realisation. They saw Lord Siva everywhere and yet they visited all temples of
Siva, prostrated before the idol and sang hymns which are on record now. The sixty-three
Nayanar saints practised Charya and Kriya only and attained God-realisation
thereby. They swept the floor of the temple, collected flowers, made garlands for the Lord
and put on lights in the temple. They were illiterate, but attained the highest
realisation. They were practical Yogis and their hearts were saturated with pure devotion.
They were embodiments of Karma Yoga. All practised the Yoga of Synthesis. The idol in the
temple was all Chaitanya or Consciousness for them. It was not a mere block of stone.
Madhusudana Swami, who had Advaitic realisation, who beheld oneness of the Self and who
had Advaitic Bhava, was intensely attached to the form of Lord Krishna with flute in His
hands.
Tulasidas realised the all-pervading essence. He had cosmic consciousness. He communed
with the all-pervading, formless Lord. And yet, his passion for Lord Rama with bow in His
hand did not vanish. When he had been to Vrindavana and saw the Murti of Lord Krishna with
flute in His hands, he said: “I will not bow my head to this form.” At once Lord
Krishna’s form assumed the form of Lord Rama. Then only he bowed his head. Tukaram
also had the same cosmic experience as that of Tulasidas. He sings in his Abhanga: “I
see my Lord all-pervading, just as sweetness pervades the sugar-cane;” and yet, he
always speaks of his Lord Vitthala of Pandarpur with His hands on the hips. Mira also
realised her identity with the all-pervading Krishna, and yet she was not tired of
repeating again and again: “My Giridhara Nagar.”
From the above facts, we can clearly infer that one can realise God through worship of
Murti or idol; that the worship of the Lord in Saguna form is a great aid for the
realisation of the Lord in His all-pervading, formless aspect also; that the worship of
the Murti is very essential for the purpose of concentration and meditation in the
beginning and that such a worship is not in anyway a hindrance to the attainment of
God-consciousness. Those who vehemently attack Murti Puja are groping in extreme darkness
and ignorance, and they have no real knowledge of Puja and worship. They enter into
unnecessary vain debates and discussion against Murti Puja to show that they are learned
persons. They have not done any real Sadhana at all. They are persons who have made idle
talking and tall talk their habit and profession. They have ruined themselves. They have
unsettled the minds of countless persons and ruined them also. The whole world worships
symbols and Murtis only in some form or the other. The mind is disciplined in the
beginning by fixing it on a concrete object or symbol. When it is rendered steady and
subtle, it can be fixed later on, on an abstract idea such as ‘Aham Brahma
Asmi.’ When one advances in meditation, the form melts in the formless and he
becomes one with the formless essence. Image worship is not contrary to the view of
Vedanta. It is rather a help.
Those who have not understood the philosophy and significance of idol-worship will
have, now at least, a clear understanding of them. Their eyes will be opened now. Ignorant
persons only, who have not studied Sastras and who have not associated with Yogis, sages
and Bhaktas, raise unnecessary arguments against idol-worship.
From Ritualistic Bhakti To Para-Bhakti
Bhakti is of two kinds, viz., higher Bhakti or Para-Bhakti, and lower Bhakti or
ritualistic Bhakti. Ritualistic worship is Vaidhi or Gauni Bhakti. It is formal Bhakti.
Vaidhi Bhakti is the lower type of devotion depending on external aids. The mind becomes
purer and purer. The aspirant gradually develops love for God through ritualistic worship.
He who does ritualistic worship rings bells, adores a Pratika (symbol) or Pratima (image),
does Puja with flowers and sandal paste, burns incense, waves light before the image,
offers Naivedya or food for God, etc.
Mukhya Bhakti or Para Bhakti is advanced type of devotion. It is higher Bhakti. It
transcends all convention. A devotee of this type knows no rule. He does not perform any
external worship. He beholds his Lord everywhere, in every object. His heart is saturated
with love for God. The whole world is Vrindavana for him. His state is ineffable. He
attains the acme of bliss. He radiates love, purity and joy wherever he goes and inspires
all who come in contact with him.
The aspirant who worships the idol in the beginning beholds the Lord everywhere and
develops Para Bhakti. From Vaidhi Bhakti, he passes on to Ragatmika Bhakti or Prema
Bhakti. He beholds the whole world as the Lord. The ideas of good and bad, right and
wrong, etc., vanish. He sees the Lord in a rogue, dacoit, cobra, scorpion, ant, dog, tree,
log of wood, block of stone, sun, moon, stars, fire, water, earth, etc. His vision or
experience baffles description. Glory to such exalted Bhaktas who are veritable Gods on
earth, who live to lift others from the quagmire of Samsara and save them from the
clutches of death!
Hinduism leads the aspirants gradually from material images to mental images, from the
diverse mental-images to the one Personal God, and from the Personal God to the Impersonal
Absolute or the Transcendental Nirguna Brahman.
The Glory Of Hindu Philosophy And Hindu Mode Of
Worship
How sublime is Hindu philosophy and Hindu mode of worship! It does not stop or end
with worship of idol alone. The Sadhaka is taken, step by step, to higher stages of
devotion and Samadhi or communion, through the worship of the idol. Though he worships the
idol, he has to keep before his mental eye the all-pervading Lord. He has to feel His
presence in his heart and in all objects also. Even in worshipping a small idol, he has to
repeat the Purusha-Sukta and to think of the Virat Purusha with countless heads, countless
eyes, countless hands, etc., who extends beyond the universe, the Lord or the Atman who
dwells in the hearts of all beings. The same man who burns incense, scented sticks and
camphor before the idol says: “The sun does not shine there nor the moon nor the
stars nor the lightning. How then could the little fire shine there? All shine after Him.
His effulgence alone illumines the whole world.” The ways and rules of
worship—Puja Vidhi—and the secrets of worship that are described in the Hindu
scriptures, are scientifically accurate and highly rational. It is only ignorant people
who have not studied the scriptures and who have not associated with the devotees and
great souls, who vilify worship of idols or Murtis.
Every other religion lays certain fixed dogmas and attempts to force people to follow
them. It has only one kind of drug to treat several diseases. It gives only one kind of
food for all and for all conditions. It places before the followers only one coat. It must
fit Albert, Atkinson, Ahluwalia, Antony and Abdul Rehman. The Hindus know that the images,
crosses and crescents are simply so many symbols to fix the mind in the beginning for
developing concentration, so many concrete pegs to hang their spiritual ideas and
convictions on. The symbol is not necessary for everyone. It is not compulsory in
Hinduism. It is not needed for an advanced Yogi or sage. Symbol is like the slate which is
useful for a boy of the first standard. Those who are not in need of it have no right to
say that it is wrong. If they say that it is wrong, they only betray their ignorance.
Conclusion
There is nothing wrong in worshipping an idol in the beginning. You must
superimpose God and His attributes on the idol. You must think of the Antar-Atman hidden
in the idol. The aspirant gradually begins to feel that the Lord he worships is in the
idol, in the hearts of all creatures and in all the names and forms of this universe. He
begins to feel His presence everywhere.
Idol-worship is only the beginning of religion. Certainly it is not its end. The same
Hindu scriptures, which prescribe idol-worship for beginners, speak of meditation on the
Infinite or the Absolute and contemplation of the significance of Tat Tvam Asi Mahavakya,
for advanced aspirants.
There are different stages of worship. The first is the worship of idols. The next is
recitation of Mantras and offering of prayers. Mental worship is superior to worship with
flowers. Meditation on the Absolute or the attributeless Nirguna Brahman is the best of
all.
The supreme state is Self-realisation or Brahma-sakshatkara. The second in rank is
meditation. The Yogi practises Sadhana or unceasing meditation on the Supreme Self. The
third is the worship of symbols. The fourth is the performance of rituals and pilgrimages
to holy places. The Sastras and Gurus are like kind mothers. They take hold of the hands
of the aspirants, take them step by step, stage by stage, till they are established in
Nirvikalpa Samadhi or superconscious state. They prescribe gross forms of Sadhana or
spiritual practices for the neophytes or beginners with gross mind and give lessons on
abstract meditation for the advanced aspirants who are endowed with pure, subtle and sharp
intellect.
Each marks a stage of progress. The human soul makes different kinds of attempts to
grasp and realise the Infinite or the Absolute according to his strength or degree of
evolution. He soars higher and higher, gathers more and more strength, and eventually
merges himself in the Supreme and attains oneness or identity.
Glory to the Hindu Rishis and the Hindu scriptures who take the aspirants from the
lower to the higher form of worship, stage by stage, step by step, and ultimately help
them to rest in the attributeless, all-pervading, formless, timeless, spaceless Brahman or
the infinite and unconditioned Brahman of the Upanishads.
Beloved children of the Lord! Shed your ignorant disbelief this moment. Enshrine
supreme, unshakable, living faith in your heart this very moment. Recall to your mind the
glorious examples of Sri Mira, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and the South Indian Alvars and
Nayanars. They believed and they reaped the rich spiritual harvests. You too can enjoy
great peace, happiness and prosperity here, and attain Him here and now, if you have this
faith in idol-worship.
Though you may perform external worship at regular intervals, let the internal worship
of the Lord in your heart be constant and unbroken. Here worship attains completeness.
Life is divine worship. May you realise the significance of the universal worship of the Virat
in daily life, and performing it, attain the summum bonum of life. May the Lord
bless you all.
CHAPTER 8
HINDU YOGA
The Four Paths
The four main spiritual paths for God-realisation are Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Raja
Yoga and Jnana Yoga. Karma Yoga is suitable for a man of active temperament, Bhakti Yoga
for a man of devotional temperament, Raja Yoga for a man of mystic temperament, and Jnana
Yoga for a man of rational and philosophical temperament, or a man of enquiry.
Mantra Yoga, Laya Yoga or Kundalini Yoga, Lambika Yoga and Hatha Yoga, are other Yogas.
Yoga, really, means union with God. The practice of Yoga leads to communion
with the Lord. Whatever may be the starting point, the end reached is the same.
Karma Yoga is the way of selfless service. The selfless worker is called the
Karma-Yogin. Bhakti Yoga is the path of exclusive devotion to the Lord. He who seeks union
through love or devotion is called the Bhakti-Yogin. Raja Yoga is the way of
self-restraint. He who seeks to have union with the Lord through mysticism is called the
Raja-Yogin. Jnana Yoga is the path of wisdom. He who seeks to unite himself with the
Supreme Self through philosophy and enquiry is called the Jnana-Yogin.
Karma Yoga
(Duty for Duty’s Sake)
Karma Yoga is the path of action. It is the path of disinterested service. It is the
way that leads to the attainment of God through selfless work. It is the Yoga of
renunciation of the fruits of actions.
Karma Yoga teaches us how to work for work’s sake—unattached—and how to
utilise to the best advantage the greater part of our energies. ‘Duty for
Duty’s Sake’ is the motto of a Karma-Yogin. Work is worship for the
practitioners of Karma Yoga. Every work is turned into an offering unto the Lord. The
Karma Yogin is not bound by the Karmas, as he consecrates the fruits of his actions to the
Lord. Yogah Karmasu Kausalam—Yoga is skill in action.
Generally, a work brings as its effect or fruit either pleasure or pain. Each work adds
a link to our bondage of Samsara and brings repeated births. This is the inexorable Law of
Karma. But, through the practice of Karma Yoga, the effects of Karmas can be wiped out.
Karma becomes barren. The same work, when done with the right mental attitude, right
spirit and right will through Yoga, without attachment and expectation of fruits, without
the idea of agency or doership, with a mind balanced in success and failure (Samatvam
Yoga Uchyate), does not add a link to our bondage. On the contrary, it purifies our
heart and helps us to attain salvation through the descent of divine light or dawn of
wisdom.
A rigid moral discipline and control of senses are indispensable for the practice of
Karma Yoga.
Brahmacharya is, indeed, essential. Cultivation of virtues such as tolerance,
adaptability, sympathy, mercy, equal vision, balance of mind, cosmic love, patience,
perseverance, humility, generosity, nobility, self-restraint, control of anger,
non-violence, truthfulness, moderation in eating, drinking and sleeping, simple living and
endurance, is very necessary.
Every man should do his duties in accordance with his own Varna and Asrama, caste and
station as well as stage in life. There is no benefit in abandoning one’s own work in
preference to another’s work.
Some people think that Karma Yoga is an inferior type of Yoga. They think that carrying
water, cleansing plates, serving food to the poor and sweeping the floor are menial works.
This is a sad mistake. They have not understood the technique and glory of Karma Yoga.
Lord Krishna, the Lord of the three worlds, acted the part of charioteer of Arjuna. He
also acted the part of a cowherd.
Bhakti Yoga
(Love for Love’s Sake)
Bhakti is intense love of God. Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion. It appeals to the
majority of mankind. ‘Love for Love’s Sake’ is the motto or formula
of a Bhakti-Yogin. God is an embodiment of love. You will have to attain Him by loving
Him. God can be realised only by means of a love as ardent and all-absorbing as the
conjugal passion. Love for God must be gradually cultivated.
He who loves God has neither wants nor sorrows. He does not hate any being or object.
He never takes delight in sensual objects. He includes everyone in the warm embrace of his
love.
Kama (worldly desires) and Trishna (cravings) are enemies of devotion. So
long as there is any trace of desire in your mind for sensual objects, you cannot have an
intense longing for God.
Atma-Nivedana is total, ungrudging, absolute self-surrender to the Lord. Atma-Nivedana
is the highest rung in the ladder of Nava-vidha Bhakti, or nine modes of devotion.
Atma-Nivedana is Prapatti or Saranagati. The devotee becomes one with the Lord through
Prapatti. He obtains the divine grace or Prasada.
Love of God and the rapturous ecstasy enjoyed by fellowship with God, cannot be
adequately described in words. It is as if a dumb man, who had tasted some palatable food,
could not speak about it. It could be revealed only to the chosen few. He who has once
experienced love will see that alone, hear that alone and speak of that alone, because he
constantly thinks of that alone.
Bhakti is one of the chief spiritual sciences. He is wealthy indeed, who has love for
the Lord. There is no sorrow other than lack of devotion to the Lord. There is no right
course except love of the devotee for the Lord. The Name, qualities and Lilas of the Lord
are the chief things to be remembered. The lotus-feet of the Lord are the chief objects of
meditation. The devotee drinks the nectar of Prema or divine love.
There are no distinctions of caste, creed, family, colour or race among the devotees.
God does not look into these things. He looks to the purity of heart of the devotees.
Anyone can become a devotee of the Lord. Nanda, an untouchable; Rai Das, a cobbler;
Kannappa, a hunter; Sena, a barber; Kabir, a Moslem weaver; and Sabari, a Bhilini were all
devotees of the Lord, and were great saints. Kannappa, an illiterate barbarian who poured
water from his mouth on the Linga and who offered swine’s flesh, became the best
among the Bhaktas. The Vaishnava Alvars and the Saiva Nayanars, of South India, were from
different classes of society.
Raja Yoga
(Discipline of the Mind)
Raja Yoga is the path that leads to union with the Lord through self-restraint and
control of mind. Raja Yoga teaches how to control the senses and the mental Vrittis or
thought-waves that arise from the mind, how to develop concentration and how to commune
with God. There is physical discipline in Hatha Yoga, whereas in Raja Yoga, there is
discipline of the mind.
The Yoga Of Eight Limbs
Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi are the eight
limbs of Raja Yoga.
Yama and Niyama constitute the ethical discipline which purifies the heart. Yama
consists of Ahimsa (non-injury), Satya (truthfulness), Brahmacharya (continence), Asteya
(non-stealing) and Aparigraha (non-receiving of gifts conducive to luxury). All virtues
are rooted in Ahimsa.
Niyama is observance. It comprises Saucha (internal and external purity), Santosha
(contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of scriptures and repetition of Mantra)
and Isvara-pranidhana (self-surrender to God). He who is established in Yama and Niyama
will have quick progress in the practice of Yoga.
Asana, Pranayama and Pratyahara are preliminary accessories to Yoga. Asana is steady
pose. Pranayama is regulation of breath. This produces serenity and steadiness of mind and
good health. Pratyahara is abstraction or withdrawal of the senses from their objects. You
must practise Pratyahara. Then only you can look within and can have introversion.
Dharana is concentration of the mind on any object, or internal Chakra, or Ishta-Devata
or tutelary Deity. Then comes Dhyana, meditation or an unceasing flow of ideas connected
with one object. This leads to Samadhi, where the meditator and the meditated become one.
All the Vrittis or waves of the mind subside. The mind ceases functioning. All the
Samskaras, impressions and Vasanas (tendencies and subtle desires) are burnt in toto.
The Yogi is freed from births and deaths. He attains Kaivalva or final Liberation
(Absolute Independence).
Concentration—The Key To Success
How powerful is the searchlight! When the sun’s rays are concentrated through a
lens, they can burn cotton. Even so, when the dissipated rays of the mind are collected,
you can work wonders. You can know all the secrets of nature through the powerful
searchlight of mind.
A scientist sits in his laboratory, concentrates all the powers of his mind and brings
them into one focus and throws them on the objects of his research and investigation. He
gets all knowledge about the elements, etc. The whole hidden knowledge of nature is
revealed unto him like the Amalaka fruit in the palm of his hand. The astronomer does the
same thing. He concentrates on the stars and planets through his telescope and attains
knowledge of the stars. Radio, wireless telegraphy, television, gramophone, telephone,
steam engine, etc., are all things invented through deep concentration.
Without concentration, you cannot have success in any walk of life or spiritual
pursuit. A cook can prepare things efficiently if he has concentration. If there is no
concentration, he spoils the preparations. A surgeon in the operation theatre needs
perfect concentration. The captain of a steamer must possess a great deal of
concentration. A tailor, a professor, a barrister, a student—all must possess
concentration. Then only they can have success in their profession. All great souls, all
master-minds who have done great work in this world, had perfect concentration.
In a worldly man, the rays of the mind are scattered in various directions. His mind is
jumping like a monkey. It is ever restless. He thinks of money, wife, children, property,
houses, etc. His mind is ever engaged in earning money and possessing objects of his
desires. He has not a bit of concentration. He cannot look within and introspect. His mind
is full of outgoing tendencies.
The Yogi concentrates on the Chakras, mind, sun, stars, elements, etc., and attain
superhuman knowledge. He obtains mastery over the elements. The power of concentration is
the only key to open the treasure-house of knowledge.
Concentration cannot come within a week or a month. It takes some time. Regularity in
the practice of concentration is of paramount importance. Brahmacharya, a cool and
congenial place, company of saints and Sattvic diet are auxiliaries in concentration.
Concentration and meditation lead to Samadhi or Superconscious Experience, which has
several stages of ascent, as attended or not attended with deliberation (Vitarka),
analysis (Vichara), joy (Ananda) and self-awareness (Asmita). Kaivalya, or Supreme
Independence, is, thus, attained.
The Obstacle Of Siddhis Or Supernatural Powers
Siddhis or supernatural powers manifest themselves when the Yogi advances in his Yogic
practices. These Siddhis such as clairvoyance, clairaudience, etc., are all obstacles in
his path. He should shun them ruthlessly and march forward direct to his goal, viz.,
Asamprajnata or Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Real spirituality has nothing to do with these powers,
which are by-products of concentration. He who runs after these Siddhis is a big worldly
man or big householder. He may have a downfall, if he is not cautious.
Jnana Yoga
(The Path of Spiritual Insight)
Jnana Yoga is the path of knowledge. Moksha is attained through Knowledge of Brahman.
Release is achieved through realisation of the identity of the individual soul with the
Supreme Soul or Brahman. The cause for bondage and suffering is Avidya or ignorance. The
little Jiva foolishly imagines, on account of ignorance, that he is separate from Brahman.
Avidya acts as a veil or screen and prevents the Jiva from knowing his real, divine
nature. Knowledge of Brahman or Brahma-Jnana removes this veil and makes the Jiva rest in
his own Sat-Chit-Ananda Svarupa (Essential Nature as Existence-Consciousness-Bliss
Absolute).
Spiritual Insight And Intellectual Knowledge
The Jnana-Yogin realises that Brahman is the Life of his life, the Soul of his soul. He
feels and knows that God is his own Self. He realises that he is one with the Eternal
through spiritual insight or intuition, Aparoksha Anubhuti or divine perception, but not
through mere study of books or dogmas or theories. Religion is realisation for him now. It
is not mere talk. He plunges himself in the deep recesses of his heart through constant
and intense meditation—Nididhyasana—and gets the wonderful pearl of Atman, a
wonderful treasure much more valuable than all the wealth of the world.
Jnana is not mere intellectual knowledge. It is not hearing or acknowledging. It is not
mere intellectual assent. It is direct realisation of oneness or unity with the Supreme
Being. It is Para Vidya. Intellectual conviction alone will not lead you to Brahma-Jnana
(Knowledge of the Absolute).
The student of Jnana Yoga first equips himself with four means, viz., discrimination
(Viveka), dispassion (Vairagya), the sixfold virtues (Shat-Sampat)—viz., tranquillity
(Sama), restraint (Dama), satiety or renunciation (Uparati), endurance (Titiksha), faith
(Sraddha) and concentration (Samadhana)—and strong yearning for liberation
(Mumukshutva). Then he hears the scriptures by sitting at the lotus-feet of a Guru, who is
not only learned in the sacred scriptures (Srotriya), but is also one who is himself
well-established in Brahman (Brahma-Nishtha). Afterwards, the student practises
reflection, which completely dispels all doubts. Then he practises deep meditation on
Brahman and attains Brahma-Sakshatkara. He becomes a Jivanmukta or liberated sage. He is
released even while he is in this body.
There are seven stages of Jnana or Knowledge: viz.; Aspiration for the Right
(Subhechha), Philosophical enquiry (Vicharana), Subtlety of mind (Tanumanasi), Attainment
of Light (Sattvapatti), Inner Detachment (Asamsakti), Spiritual Vision (Padarthabhavana)
and Supreme Freedom (Turiya).
The Analogy Of The Two Birds
There are two birds on the same tree. One is perched at the top and the other below.
The bird which is sitting on the top is perfectly serene, silent and majestic at all
times. It is ever blissful. The other bird, which is perching on the lower branches, eats
the sweet and bitter fruits by turns. It dances in joy sometimes. It is miserable at other
times. It rejoices now and weeps after some time. Sometimes it tastes an extremely bitter
fruit and gets disgusted. It looks up and beholds the other wonderful bird with golden
plumage which is ever blissful. It also wishes to become like the bird with golden
plumage, but soon forgets everything. Again it begins to eat the sweet and bitter fruits.
It eats another fruit that is exceedingly bitter and feels very miserable. It again tries
to become like the upper bird. Gradually, it abandons eating the fruits, and becomes
serene and blissful like the upper bird. The upper bird is God or Brahman. The lower bird
is Jiva or the individual soul who reaps the fruits of his Karmas, viz., pleasure and
pain. He gets knocks and blows in the battle of life. He rises up and again falls down as
the senses drag him down. Gradually he develops Vairagya (dispassion) and discrimination,
turns his mind towards God, practises meditation, attains Self-realisation and enjoys the
eternal bliss of Brahman.
The Yoga Of Synthesis
Some maintain that the practice of Karma Yoga alone is the only means for
salvation. Some others hold that devotion to the Lord is the only way to release. Some
believe that the path of wisdom is the sole way to attain the final beatitude. There are
still others who hold that all the three paths are equally efficacious to bring about
perfection and freedom.
Man is a strange, complex mixture of will, feeling and thought. He wills to possess the
objects of his desires. He has emotion and so he feels. He has reason and so he thinks and
ratiocinates. In some, the emotional element may preponderate, while in some others, the
rational element may dominate. Just as will, feeling and thought are not distinct and
separate, so also work, devotion and knowledge are not exclusive of one another.
The Yoga of Synthesis is the most suitable and potent form of Sadhana. In the mind
there are three defects, viz., Mala or impurity, Vikshepa or tossing and Avarana
or veil. The impurity should be removed by the practice of Karma Yoga. The tossing
should be removed by worship or Upasana. The veil should be torn down by the
practice of Jnana Yoga. Then only is Self-realisation possible. If you want to see your
face clearly in a mirror, you must remove the dirt in the mirror, keep it steady and
remove the covering also. You can see your face clearly in the bottom of the lake only if
the turbidity is removed, if the water that is agitated by the wind is rendered still, and
if the moss that is lying on the surface is removed. So too is the case with
Self-realisation.
The Yoga of Synthesis alone will bring about integral development. The Yoga of
Synthesis alone will develop the head, heart and hand and lead one to perfection. To
become harmoniously balanced in all directions is the ideal of religion. This can be
achieved by the practice of the Yoga of Synthesis.
To behold the one Universal Self in all beings is Jnana, wisdom; to love this Self is
Bhakti, devotion; and to serve this Self is Karma, action. When the Jnana-Yogin attains
wisdom, he is endowed with devotion and selfless activity. Karma Yoga is for him a
spontaneous expression of his spiritual nature, as he sees the one Self in all. When the
devotee attains perfection in devotion, he is possessed of wisdom and activity. For him
also, Karma Yoga is a spontaneous expression of his divine nature, as he beholds the one
Lord everywhere. The Karma-Yogin attains wisdom and devotion when his actions are wholly
selfless. The three paths are in fact one in which the three different temperaments
emphasise one or the other of its inseparable constituents. Yoga supplies the method by
which the Self can be seen, loved and served.
CHAPTER 9
HINDU THEOLOGY
Theological Classifications
Hinduism—A Fellowship Of Faiths And A Federation Of
Philosophies
Hindu theology is mainly the study and doctrine of the worship and adoration of six
forms of the Godhead as Ganesa, Devi (Durga, Lakshmi, Sarasvati), Siva, Vishnu, Surya and
Skanda. These aspects of divine worship are known as Shanmatas, or the sixfold
religious practice of the Hindus.
Hinduism is extremely catholic, liberal, tolerant and elastic. This is the wonderful
feature of Hinduism. A foreigner is struck with astonishment when he hears about the
diverse sects and creeds of Hinduism. But these varieties are really an ornament to
Hinduism. They are not certainly its defects. There are various types of minds and
temperaments. So there should be various faiths also. This is but natural. This is the
cardinal tenet of Hinduism. There is room in Hinduism for all types of souls—from the
highest to the lowest—for their growth and evolution.
The term Hinduism is most elastic. It includes a number of sects and cults,
allied, but different in many important points. Hinduism has, within its fold, various
schools of Vedanta; Vaishnavism, Saivism, Saktism, etc. It has various cults and creeds.
It is more a League of Religions than a single religion with a definite creed. It
accommodates all types of men. It prescribes spiritual food for everybody, according to
his qualification and growth. This is the beauty of this magnanimous religion. This is the
glory of Hinduism. Hence there is no conflict among the various cults and creeds. The
Rig-Veda declares: “Truth is one; sages call it by various names—Ekam Sat
Viprah Bahudha Vadanti.” The Upanishads declare that all the paths lead to the
same goal, just as cows of variegated colours yield the same white milk. The Lord Krishna
says in the Gita: “Howsoever men approach Me, even so do I welcome them, for the path
men take from every side is Mine.” All diversities are organised and united in the
body of Hinduism.
It is rather difficult to answer the question: “What is Hinduism?” It is a
fellowship of faiths. It is also a federation of philosophies. It provides food for
reflection for the different types of thinkers and philosophers all over the world. All
sorts of philosophy are necessary. What appeals to one may not appeal to another, and what
is easy for one may be difficult for another. Hence the need for different standpoints.
All philosophies of Hinduism are points of view. They are true in their own way. They take
the aspirant step by step, stage by stage, till he reaches the acme or the pinnacle of
spiritual glory.
Sanatana-Dharmists, Arya-Samajists, Deva-Samajists, Jainas, Bauddhas, Sikhs and
Brahma-Samajists are all Hindus only, for they rose from Hinduism, and emphasised one or
more of its aspects.
The Hindus are divided into three great classes, viz., Vaishnavas who worship the Lord
as Vishnu; Saivas who worship the Lord as Siva; and Saktas who adore Devi or the Mother
aspect of the Lord. In addition, there are the Sauras, who worship the Sun-God; Ganapatyas
who worship Ganesa as supreme; and Kaumaras who worship Skanda as the Godhead.
The Vaishnavas
Sri Sampradayins
The Vaishnavas are usually distinguished into four principal Sampradayas or sects. Of
these, the most ancient is the Sri Sampradaya founded by Ramanuja Acharya. The followers
of Ramanuja adore Vishnu and Lakshmi, and their incarnations. They are called Ramanujas or
Sri Sampradayins or Sri Vaishnavas. They all repeat the Ashtakshara Mantra: ‘Om
Namo Narayanaya.’ They put on two white vertical lines and a central red line on
the forehead.
Vedanta Desika, a follower of Ramanuja, introduced some reform in the Vaishnava faith.
This gave rise to the formation of two parties of Ramanujas, one called the Northern
School (Vadagalai) and the other the Southern School (Tengalai). The Tengalais regard
Prapatti or self-surrender as the only way to salvation. The Vadagalais think that it is
only one of the ways. According to them, the Bhakta or devotee is like the young one of a
monkey which has to exert itself and cling to its mother (Markata-Nyaya or Monkey Theory);
whereas, according to the Southern School, the Bhakta or devotee is like the kitten which
is carried about by the cat without any effort on its own part (Marjala-Nyaya or Cat-hold
Theory). The Northern School accept the Sanskrit texts, the Vedas. The Southerners have
compiled a Veda of their own called ‘Nalayira Prabandha’ or ‘Four
Thousand Sacred Verses’, in Tamil, and hold it to be older than the Sanskrit Vedas.
Really, their four thousand verses are based on the Upanishad portion of the Vedas. In all
their worship, they repeat sections from their Tamil verses.
The Vadagalais regard Lakshmi as the consort of Vishnu. Herself infinite, uncreated and
equally to be adored as a means (Upaya) for release. The Tengalais regard Lakshmi as a
created female being, though divine. According to them, she acts as a mediator or minister
(Purushakara), and not as an equal channel of release.
The two sects have different frontal marks. The Vadagalais make a simple white line
curved like the letter U to represent the sole of the right foot of Lord Vishnu, the
source of the Ganga. They add a central red mark as a symbol of Lakshmi. The Tengalais
make a white mark like the letter Y which represents both the feet of Lord Vishnu. They
draw a white line half down the nose.
Both the sects brand the emblems of Vishnu—the discus and the conch—on their
breasts, shoulders and arms.
The Tengalais prohibit their widows from shaving the head.
The usual surnames of the Ramanuja Brahmins are Aiyangar, Acharya, Charlu and Acharlu.
Ramanandis
The followers of Ramananda are the Ramanandis. They are well-known in upper Hindusthan.
They are a branch of the Ramanuja sect. They offer their worship to Lord Rama, Sita,
Lakshmana and Hanuman. Ramananda was a disciple of Ramanuja. He flourished at Varanasi
about the beginning of the fourteenth century. His followers are numerous in the Ganga
valley of India. Their favourite work is the ‘Bhakti-Mala’. Their
sectarian marks are like those of the Ramanujas. The Vairagis are the ascetics among the
Ramanandis.
Vallabhacharins Or Krishna Sampradayins
The Vallabhacharins form a very important sect in Bombay, Gujarat and the Central
India. Their founder was born in the forest Champaranya in 1479. He is regarded as an
incarnation of Krishna. The Vallabhacharins worship Krishna, as Bala-Gopala. Their idol is
one representing Krishna in his childhood till his twelfth year. The Gosains or teachers
are family men. The eight daily ceremonials for God in the temples are Mangala, Sringara,
Gvala, Raja Bhoga, Utthapana, Bhoga, Sandhya and Sayana. All these represent various forms
of adoration of God.
The mark on the forehead consists of two red perpendicular lines meeting in a
semicircle at the root of the nose and having a round spot of red between them. The
necklace and rosary are made of the stalk of the Tulasi (holy Basil).
The great authority of the sect is the Srimad-Bhagavata as explained in the Subodhini,
the commentary thereon of Vallabhacharya. The members of the sect should visit Sri
Nathdvara, a holy shrine, at least once in their lives.
The Chaitanyas
This sect is prominent in Bengal and Orissa. The founder, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu or Lord
Gouranga, was born in 1485. He was regarded as an incarnation of Lord Krishna. He took
Sannyasa at the age of twenty-four. He went to Jagannath where he taught Vaishnava
doctrines.
The Chaitanyas worship Lord Krishna as the Supreme Being. All castes are admissible
into the sect. The devotees constantly repeat the Name of Lord Krishna.
Chaitanya’s Charitamirita by Krishna Das is a voluminous work. It contains
anecdotes of Chaitanya and his principal disciples and the expositions of the doctrines of
this sect. It is written in Bengali.
The Vaishnavas of this sect wear two white perpendicular streaks of sandal or
Gopichandana (a kind of sacred earth) down the forehead uniting at the root of the nose
and continuing to near the tip. They wear a close necklace of small Tulasi beads of three
strings.
The Nimbarkas
The founder of this sect is Nimbarka or Nimbaditya. He was originally named Bhaskara
Acharya. He is regarded as an incarnation of the Sun-God (Surya). The followers worship
Krishna and Radha conjointly. Their chief scripture is the Srimad-Bhagavata Purana.
The followers have two perpendicular yellowish lines made by Gopichandana earth drawn
from the root of the hair to the commencement of each eyebrow and there meeting in a
curve. This represents the footprint of the Lord Vishnu.
The Nimbarkas or Nimavats are scattered throughout the whole of upper India. They are
very numerous around Mathura. They are also the most numerous of the Vaishnava sects in
Bengal.
The Madhvas
The Madhvas are Vaishnavas. They are known as Brahma Sampradayins. The founder of the
sect is Madhvacharya, otherwise called Ananda Tirtha and Purna-Prajna. He was born in
1200. He was a great opponent of Sankaracharya’s Advaita system of philosophy. He is
regarded as an incarnation of Vayu or the Wind-God. He erected and consecrated at Udipi
the image of the Lord Krishna.
The Gurus of the Madhva sect are Brahmins and Sannyasins. The followers bear the
impress of the symbols of Vishnu upon their breasts and shoulders. They are stamped with a
hot iron. Their frontal mark consists of two perpendicular lines made with Gopichandana
and joined at the root of the nose. They make straight black line, with a charcoal from
incense offered to Krishna, which terminates in a round mark made with turmeric.
The Madhvas are divided into two classes called the Vyasakutas and the Dasakutas. They
are found in Karnataka.
Truthfulness, study of scriptures, generosity, kindness, faith and freedom from envy
form the moral code of Madhvas. They give the Lord’s Names to their children
(Namakarana), and mark the body with His symbols (Ankana). They practise virtue in
thought, word and deed (Bhajana).
Radha Vallabhis
Radha Vallabhis worship Krishna as Radha-Vallabha, the Lord or Lover of Radha. Harivans
was the founder of this sect. Seva Sakhi Vani gives a detailed description of the notion
of this sect and more of their traditions and observances.
Charana Dasis, Dadu Panthis, Hari Chandis, Kabir Panthis, Khakis, Maluk Dasis, Mira
Bais, Madhavis, Rayi Dasis, Senais, Sakhi Bhavas, Sadma Panthis, are all Vaishnava sects.
The Saivas
Smarta Brahmins Of The South
The Saiva Brahmins of the Tamil Nadu have their title Aiyer. They are called
Smartas. They all wear three horizontal lines of Bhasma or Vibhuti (holy ash) on their
forehead. They all worship Lord Siva. The different sects are:
1. Vadamas: Vada Desa Vadamas, Chola Desa Vadamas and Inji Vadamas; 2. Brihatcharanam:
Mazhainattu Brihatcharanam, Pazhamaneri Brihatcharanam, Milaghu Brihatcharanam and
Kandramanikka Brihatcharanam; 3. Vathimars; 4. Ashtasahasram; 5. Choliyas:
Otherwise called Pandimars and inhabitants of Tiruchendur; and 6. Gurukkal: A
sub-sect of Vadamas not recognised as one amongst them and whose duties are to worship at
temples. They are also known by the name of Pattar in southern districts of Madras. These
are different from Archaks. Archaks belong to any of the above sub-sects and intermarry
with persons of other professions, but not Gurukkal or Pattar. While Gurukkal is used only
for Saivites, Pattar and Archak are used for Vaishnavites also.
Saiva Brahmins Of Malabar
1. Nambudiri, 2. Muse and 3. Embrantiri.
Saiva Brahmins Of Bengal
l. Chakravarti, 2. Chunder, 3. Roy, 4. Ganguli, 5. Choudhury, 6. Bisvas, 7. Bagchi, 8.
Majumdar and 9. Bhattacharji.
Saiva Brahmins Of Karnataka
1. Smarta, 2. Haviga, 3. Kota, 4. Shivalli, 5. Tantri, 6. Kardi and 7. Padya.
Telugu Smartas
1. Murukinadu, 2. Velanadu, 3. Karanakammalu, 4. Puduru Dravidis, 5. Telahanyam, 6.
Konasimadravidi and 7. Aruvela Niyogis.
Lingayats
They are called Vira Saivas. They are found in Mysore and Karnataka. They wear on their
neck a Linga of the Lord Siva put in a small silver box.
Other Saiva Sects
Akas Mukhis, Gudaras, Jangamas, Karalingis, Nakhis, Rukharas, Sukharas, Urdhabahus,
Ukkaras are all Saiva sects.
The Saktas
The Saktas are worshippers of Devi, the Universal Mother. Dakshinis, Vamis,
Kancheliyas, Kararis are all Sakta sects.
Miscellaneous
The Sauras adore the Sun, the Ganapatyas adore Ganesa, and the Kaumaras adore
Skanda.
The non-Brahmins of South India are Naidu, Kamma Naidu, Cherty, Mudaliar, Gounder,
Pillai, Nair, Nayanar and Reddy.
Nanak Shahis of seven classes (viz., Udasis, Ganjbakshis, Ramrayis, Sutra Shahis,
Govinda Sinhis, Nirmalas, Nagas), Baba Lalis, Prana Nathis, Sadhus, Satnamis, Siva
Narayanis are other miscellaneous sects.
The Arya Samajists And The Brahma Samajists
The founder of the Arya Samaj was Swami Dayananda Sarasvati, who was born in
Kathiawar in 1824. This Samaj is more of a social institution, with a religious
background. It has Gurukulas, schools and Pathasalas. The Suddhi Sabha is a proselytising
branch of the Arya Samaj.
The Brahma Samaj was founded originally by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, early in the nineteenth
century. The Brahma Samajists do not perform idol-worship. Keshab Chandra Sen introduced
some changes in the year 1860. There are now two branches within the Samaj, viz., Adi
Brahma Samaj which holds to the tenets laid down by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the Sadharana
Brahma Samaj which is a little modern and which follows Keshab Chandra Sen more closely.
The Samaj has followers in Bengal.
Sadhus And Sannyasins
Salutations unto the ancient Rishis, seers, saints, Paramahamsa Sannyasins and
Sadhus, who are the repositories of divine knowledge and wisdom and who guide the destiny
of the world in the past, present and future.
Every religion has a band of anchorites who lead the life of seclusion and meditation.
There are Bhikkus in Buddhism, Fakirs in Mohammendanism, Sufistic Fakirs in Sufism, and
Fathers and Reverends in Christianity. The glory of a religion will be lost absolutely if
you remove these hermits or Sannyasins or those who lead a life of renunciation and divine
contemplation. It is these people who maintain or preserve the religions of the world. It
is these people who give solace to the householders when they are in trouble and distress.
They are the messengers of the Atman-knowledge and heavenly peace. They are the harbingers
of divine wisdom and peace. They are the disseminators of Adhyatmic science and
Upanishadic revelations. They heal the sick, comfort the forlorn and nurse the bedridden.
They bring hope to the hopeless, joy to the depressed, strength to the weak and courage to
the timid, by imparting the knowledge of the Vedanta and the significance of the ‘Tat
Tvam Asi’ Mahavakya.
Dasanama Sannyasins
Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanat-Kumara and Sanat-Sujata were the four mind-born sons of Lord
Brahma. They refused to enter the Pravritti Marga or worldly life and entered the Nivritti
Marga or the path of renunciation. The four Kumaras were the pioneers in the path of
Sannyasa. Sri Dattatreya also is among the original Sannyasins. The Sannyasins of the
present day all descendants of the four Kumaras, Dattatreya and Sankaracharya.
Sri Sankaracharya, regarded as an Avatara of Lord Siva and the eminent exponent of
Kevala Advaita philosophy, established four Mutts—one at Sringeri, another at
Dvaraka, a third at Puri and a fourth at Joshi-Mutt in the Himalayas, on the way to the
Badarinarayana shrine.
Sri Sankara had four Sannyasin disciples, viz., Suresvara, Padmapada, Hastamalaka and
Totaka. Suresvara was in charge of Sringeri Mutt, Padmapada was in charge of Puri Mutt,
Hastamalaka was in charge of Dvaraka Mutt and Totaka was in charge of Joshi-Mutt.
The Sannyasins of Sringeri Mutt, the spiritual descendants of Sri Sankara and
Suresvaracharya, have three names, viz., Sarasvati, Puri and Bharati. The Sannyasins of
the Dvaraka Mutt have two names, viz., Tirtha and Asrama. The Sannyasins of the Puri Mutt
have two names, viz., Vana and Aranya. The Sannyasins of the Joshi-Mutt have three names,
viz., Giri, Parvata and Sagara.
The Dasanamis worship Lord Siva or Lord Vishnu, and meditate on Nirguna Brahman. The
Dandi Sannyasins, who hold staff in their hands, belong to the order of Sri Sankara.
Paramahamsa Sannyasins do not hold staff. They freely move about as itinerant monks.
Avadhutas are naked Sannyasins. They do not keep any property with them.
The Sannyasins of the Ramakrishna Mission belong to the order of Sri Sankara. They have
the name Puri.
Then, there are Akhada Sannyasins, viz., Niranjani Akhada and Jhuna Akhada. They belong
to the order of Sri Sankara. They are Dasanamis. They are found in the Uttar Pradesh State
only.
Rishikesh and Haridwar are colonies for Sannyasins. Varanasi also is among the chief
abodes of Sannyasins.
Saivas
In South India, there are Tamil Sannyasins who belong to the Kovilur Mutt,
Thiruvavaduthurai and Dharmapuram Adhinams. They do not belong to the Sri Sankara order.
They are Saivas.
Nagas
Nagas are Saiva Sannyasins. They are in a naked state. They smear their bodies with
ashes. They have beard and matted locks.
Udasis
Guru Nanak’s order of ascetics are called Udasis. They correspond to Sannyasins
and Vairagis. They are indifferent to the sensual pleasures of this world (Udasina). Hence
they are called Udasis.
Vairagis
A Vairagi is one who is devoid of passion. Vairagis are Vaishnavas. They worship Lord
Rama, Sita and Hanuman. They read the Ramayana of Tulasidas. The mendicant Vaishnavas of
the Ramanandi class are the Vairagis. This ascetic order was instituted by Sri Ananda, the
twelfth disciple of Ramananda.
Rama Sanehis
The founder of this order was Ramcharan who was born in the year 1718 in a village near
Jaipur in Rajasthan. The Rama Sanehi mendicants are of two classes, viz., the Videhis who
are naked and the Mohinis who wear two pieces of cotton cloth dyed red in ochre. Their
monastery is in Shahapur in Rajasthan. The Rama Sanehi sect has the largest following in
Mewar and Alwar. They are found also in Bombay, Gujarat, Surat, Poona, Ahmedabad,
Hyderabad and Varanasi.
Kabir Panthis
Kabir Panthis are the followers of saint Kabir. They are numerous in all the provinces
of Upper and Central India. There are twelve branches. Kabir Chaura is at Varanasi. It is
a big monastery of Kabir Panthis. Dharamdas was the chief disciple of Kabir. The followers
are expected to have implicit devotion to the Gurus, in thought, word and deed. They
should practise truthfulness, mercy, non-injury and seclusion. The followers of Kamal, son
of Kabir, practise Yoga.
Dadu Panthis
The Dadu Panthis form one of the Vaishnava cults. Dadu, the founder of this sect, was a
disciple of one of the Kabir Panthi teachers. The followers worship the Lord Rama.
Dadu was a cotton cleaner. He was born at Ahmedabad. He flourished about the year 1600.
The Dadu Panthis are of three classes, viz., the Viraktas who are bareheaded and have one
cloth and one water-pot, the Nagas who carry arms and who are regarded as soldiers and the
Vistar Dharis who do the avocations of ordinary life.
The Dadu Panthis are numerous in Marwar and Ajmer. Their chief place of worship is at
Naraina, which is near Sambhur and Jaipur. Passages from the Kabir writings are inserted
in their religious scriptures.
Gorakhnath Panthis
Gorakhnath was a contemporary of Kabir. He is regarded as the incarnation of Lord Siva.
He calls himself as the son of Matsyendranath and grandson of Adinath. There is a temple
of Gorakhnath at Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh. Bhartrihari was a disciple of Gorakhnath.
Goraksha-Sataka, Goraksha-Kalpa and Goraksha-Nama were written by Gorakhnath. They are
in Sanskrit.
The followers of Gorakhnath are usually called Kanphatas, because their ears are bored
and rings are inserted in them, at the time of their initiation. They worship the Lord
Siva.
Nimbarka Sampradayis And Ramanuja Sampradayis
There are Sadhus of the Nimbarka Sampradaya. There are Vaishnavas. The Sannyasins of
the Ramanuja Sampradaya wear orange-coloured cloth, a holy thread and tuff and Tri-danda
or three-staff. At present, they are very few in number.
Parinami Sect
Sri Pirannath is the founder of this sect. He was born in 1675 at Jamnagar, district
Rajkot, in Kathiawar. He was the Divan of Raja Jam Jasa. The followers are to practise
Ahimsa, Satya and Daya—non-violence, truthfulness and compassion. They study the
sacred book, Kul Jam Svarup, or Atma-Bodha, in Hindi, which contains the teachings of Sri
Pirannath. It contains 18,000 Chaupais. They worship Bala-Krishna, i.e., Krishna as a
small lad.
The followers are found mostly in the Punjab, Gujarat, Assam, Nepal and Bombay. There
are two Mutts or monasteries—one at Jamnagar and the other at Pamna.
CHAPTER 10
HINDU MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOLS
Hindu Mythology
Mythology is a part of every religion. Mythology is concretised philosophy.
Mythology is the science which investigates myths or fables or legends founded on remote
events, especially those made in the early period of a people’s existence. Mythology
inspires the readers through precepts and laudable examples and goads them to attain
perfection or the highest ideal. The abstract teachings and high subtle ideas are made
highly interesting and impressive to the masses through the garb of stories, parables,
legends, allegories and narratives. The sublime and abstract philosophical ideas and
ideals of Hinduism are taken straight to the heart of the masses through impressive
stories.
Mythology And History
All religions have their own mythology. Mythology is slightly mixed up with a little
history. It is difficult to make a fine distinction between history and mythology. If a
Christian stands up and says: “My prophet did such and such a marvellous thing,”
others will say: “This is only a myth. Our prophets did still more marvellous things
which are really historical.” It is not easy to differentiate the two into watertight
compartments.
The doctrine of Avatara of the Hindus is a myth for the people of other religions. To
worship a cow is superstition for the followers of other religions. The beautiful image or
idol of Lord Krishna, which captivates the hearts of the sincere devotees and inspires
them to enter into Bhava Samadhi, is horrible to look at for some other religionists. A
Christian, a Jew and all others have their own various superstitions and myths. But these
myths are really historical for each of them, severally. Mythology has no reference to
anything ‘unreal’, but presents truths as clothed in conceptual categories.
Philosophy, Mythology And Ritual
In every religion there are three parts, viz., philosophy, mythology and ritual.
Philosophy is the essence of religion. It sets forth its basic principles or fundamental
doctrines or tenets, the goal and the means of attaining it. Mythology explains and
illustrates philosophy by means of legendary lives of great men or of supernatural beings.
Ritual gives a still more concrete form to philosophy so that everyone may understand it.
Ritual consists of forms, ceremonies, etc.
Puranas contain various myths. The cosmogonic myths of the Puranas are very
interesting. A certain portion of Hindu mythology is even now presented to the public in
the form of dramas during days of Hindu festivals. Thus the minds of the people are
saturated with sublime ideas and ideals and lifted to great spiritual heights.
Study Of Mythology And Its Advantages
There are great truths behind the ancient mythology of Hinduism. You cannot ignore a
thing simply because it has a garb of mythology. Do not argue. Shut up your mouth. Keep
your intellect at a respectable distance when you study mythology. Intellect is a
hindrance. It will delude you. Give up arrogance and vanity. Cultivate love for imagery.
Sit like a child and open your heart freely. You will comprehend the great truths revealed
by mythology. You will penetrate into the hearts of the Rishis and sages who wrote the
mythology. You will really enjoy mythology now.
You study geography through maps. There is no real country or town in a map, but it
helps you to know a great deal about the different countries. Similar is the case with
myths. You can grasp the subtle philosophical truths through myths.
By studying mythology, you will get several object lessons for moulding your character
and leading an ideal divine life. The lives of Sri Rama, Sri Krishna, Bhishma, Nala,
Harischandra, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman, Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Sita, Savitri, Damayanti,
Radha, etc., are sources of great spiritual inspiration for moulding your life, conduct
and character. When you are in a dilemma as to what to do in puzzling situations and when
there is conflict of duties, you will get the exact solutions through study of mythology.
Thus, mythology has its own benefits and advantages. It stamps on the minds the subtle
and abstract teachings of the Vedas through instructive stories and illuminating
discourses and paves the way for men to lead a divine life and attain perfection, freedom
and immortality.
Hindu Symbols
Outward symbols are necessary and beneficial. When viewed from the right angle of
vision, you will find that they play a very important part in your material as well as
spiritual life. Though they may look very simple and unimportant, they are very scientific
and effective.
Tilaka—A Mark Of Auspiciousness
Tilaka is a mark of auspiciousness. It is put on the forehead with sandal paste, sacred
ashes or Kumkuma. The devotees of Siva apply sacred ashes (Bhasma) on the forehead, the
devotees of Vishnu apply sandal paste (Chandana), and the worshippers of Devi or Sakti
apply Kumkuma, a red turmeric powder. The scriptures say: “A forehead without a
Tilaka, a woman without a husband, a Mantra the meaning of which is not known while doing
Japa, the head that does not bend before holy personages, a heart without mercy, a house
without a well, a village without a temple, a country without a river, a society without a
leader, wealth that is not given away in charity, a preceptor without a disciple, a
country without justice, a king without an able minister, a woman not obedient to her
husband, a well without water, a flower without smell, a soul devoid of holiness, a field
without rains, an intellect without clearness, a disciple who does not consider his
preceptor as a form of God, a body devoid of health, a custom (Achara) without purity,
austerity devoid of fellow-feeling, speech in which truth is not the basis, a country
without good people, work without wages, Sannyasa without renunciation, legs which have
not performed pilgrimages, a determination unaided by Viveka or discrimination, a knife
which is blunt, a cow which does not give milk, a spear without a point—all these are
worthy of condemnation. They exist for name’s sake only.” From this you can
imagine the importance of Tilaka or the sacred mark.
Tilaka is applied at the Ajna Chakra, the space between the two eyebrows. It has a very
cooling effect. Application of sandal paste has great medicinal value, apart from the
spiritual influence. Application of sandal paste will nullify the heating effect when you
concentrate and meditate at the Bhrumadhya. Tilaka indicates the point at which the
spiritual eye opens. Lord Siva has a third eye at the Bhrumadhya. When He opens the third
eye, the three worlds are destroyed. So also, when the third eve of the Jiva is opened,
the three kinds of afflictions—Adhyatmika, Adhidaivika and Adhibhautika—are
burnt to ashes. The three Karmas—Sanchita, Prarabdha and Agami—and also all the
sins committed in the countless previous births, are burnt. When you apply the Tilaka, you
mentally imagine: “I am the one non-dual Brahman free from all duality. May my eye of
intuition open soon.” You should remember this every time you apply a Tilaka.
There are various methods of applying Tilaka. Saivas apply three horizontal lines with
the sacred ashes. The Vaishnavas apply three vertical lines (Tripundra) on the forehead.
When they apply Tilaka, they say: “O Lord, protect me from the evil effects of the
Trigunatmika Maya which has Sattva, Rajas and Tamas as its binding cords.” Some
Vaishnavas apply only one vertical line. Only the method of application differs, but the
significance is the same in both the Vaishnavas and the Saivas.
The Tuft—Its Utility And Significance
Brahmins (Brahmanas) as well as the other castes grow Choti or Sikha, a tuft of hair.
This tuff of hair was not so small in olden days, as seen in the present day. It covered
the whole brain. They allowed the hair to grow. They never cut the tuft. It protects the
brain from any sudden stroke and keeps it cool. The heat of the sun does not affect the
head directly. Lack of this tuff has necessitated the use of umbrellas, etc.
The tuft is most scientific as well as religious. Any religious act should be performed
after tying the tuft. Only the funeral and death anniversaries are performed with tuft
untied or with dishevelled hair. It is very inauspicious to remain with dishevelled hair.
It is done only in times of great sorrow or calamity. Draupadi took an oath in the
assembly of the Kurus when she was molested by Dussasana that she would remain with
dishevelled hair until the enemies were properly revenged. Kaikeyi remained with
dishevelled hair in her apartment with the object of getting two boons from Dasaratha
which were detrimental to the interests of Rama, the favourite of Dasaratha. Auspicious
acts are never undertaken with tuft untied. Nowadays, very few people wear tuft, and even
women are neglecting this vital point in their feverish anxiety to copy the West. The tuft
of hair has a salutary effect on the essential parts of the brain and the central nervous
system.
Significance Of The Sacred Thread
Yajnopavita or the sacred thread is worn by the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and the Vaisyas.
Wearing the sacred thread is a very holy and sacred ceremony amongst the Hindus. Brahmin
boys between the ages of five and eight are invested with the sacred thread on a very
auspicious day. By this ceremony, they become fit for the repetition of Gayatri. A Brahmin
becomes a true Brahmin only after this ceremony. It is said: “Janmana Jayate
Sudrah Karmana Jayate Dvijah—By birth one is a Sudra; by Karma (i.e., the
investiture with the sacred thread) he becomes a Dvija or Brahmin.” Upanayana or
thread ceremony is the second birth; hence, the Brahmins are called Dvijas (Dvija means
‘born twice’).
The sacred thread or Yajnopavita consists of three threads. It denotes that one should
be a Brahmachari in thought, word and deed. Each thread represents a Veda, viz., the Rik,
Yajus and Sama. It represents also Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. The knot in the middle
represents the formless Brahman, the Supreme Principle. The three threads represent also
Sattva, Rajas and Tamas of the Trigunatmika Maya, and the knot represents the Isvara who
controls Maya. Those who worship God at the three Sandhyas and repeat the Gayatri holding
the Brahma knot of the sacred thread, derive immense strength and power. In days of yore,
a Brahmana meditating upon the Gayatri holding the Brahma knot, had the power to bless and
curse others. The educated intelligentsia of the present day are quite ignorant of the
power of the sacred thread and the performance of Sandhya. That is the reason why they
have ignored it. The sacred thread is a great power for the Brahmin who leads a regulated
life devoted to the worship of God. Kshatriyas and Vaisyas, too, acquire power, fame and
wealth by the power of the sacred thread.
A householder wears, at the time of marriage, an additional sacred thread. A
Brahmachari has only one. The additional thread at the time of marriage is intended for
the well-being of the partner. The sacred thread should be on the body always. The custom
of washing it after removing it from the body or sending it to the washerman, is a wrong
procedure. Some people are ashamed to wear the thread when they go to the office and they
leave it at home. How ignorant they are!
Yajnopavita, the Choti, caste-mark, etc., are the external symbols to show that one is
a Hindu. Purity, self-restraint, non-violence, patience, love for one’s
fellow-beings—these are the internal marks of a Hindu.
Achamana And Prokshana
Achamana is sipping water three times, repeating the Names of the Lord. Prokshana is
sprinkling water over one’s body for the sake of purity, when a bath is not possible.
This is for internal as well as external purity. While sipping water, the following
Mantras are repeated: “Achyutaya Namah—prostrations to the immutable
Lord; Anantaya Namah—prostrations to the unlimited Lord; Govindaya
Namah—prostrations to the Lord who is known by the Name of Govinda.” Then
the various Names of the Lord—Kesava, Narayana, Madhava, Govinda, Vishnu,
Madhusudana, Trivikrama, Vamana, Sridhara, Hrishikesa, Padmanabha and Damodara—are
repeated, touching the various parts Of the body, viz., the eyes, the ears, the face, the
navel, the head, etc. One becomes pure by doing Achamana after he answers calls of nature,
after walking in the streets, just before taking food and after food, and after a bath.
This reminds you of the Lord now and then. Every act, every ritual, every symbol has a
deep philosophical importance. They help you in changing the mental substance from Rajas
and Tamas to Sattva. They give you an opportunity to think of God frequently.
Offering Food To God, Guests And The Pancha-Pranas
Before sitting for food, the place is purified, a seat is put and in a leaf the
articles of food are served. Before taking the food, a little water is sprinkled making a
line all round the leaf repeating some Vedic Mantras. This repetition purifies the food.
Then a little water is sipped. According to science as well as medicine, a little water,
if drunk before the food is taken, is highly beneficial. Then the food is offered to the
five Pranas and Brahman seated in the heart, by repeating Om Pranaya Svaha, Apanaya
Svaha, Vyanaya Svaha, Udanaya Svaha, Samanaya Svaha, and lastly, Brahmane Svaha.
Just mark the importance of this offering. The person who takes the food offers it to the
deities who dwell in the body in the form of Prana, Apana, etc. He does not eat for
himself. The physical body is not the eater. It is the Pancha Prana that takes the food.
Thus, taking food also can be converted into an act of Yoga or sacrifice.
One should daily offer to the Lord the food that he has prepared, before he partakes of
it. He should say: “Tvadiyam Vastu Govinda Tubhyameva Samarpaye—I offer
to Thee, O Govinda, this (food) which belongs to Thee only.” The custom of the Hindus
is that they should feed the guest who comes to their house before they take food. The
guest is a representative of the Lord. The Srutis say: “Athhi Devo Bhava.”
Bells, Lights, Dhupa, Camphor And Sandal Paste
Bells are rung in temples while doing Puja, to shut out the external sounds and to make
the mind inward and concentrated.
Lights are waved before the Deity. This denotes that the Lord is Jyotis-Svarupa. He is
all-light. The devotee says: “O Lord! Thou art the self-effulgent Light of the
universe. Thou art the light in the sun, moon and fire. Remove the darkness in me by
bestowing your divine light. May my intellect be illumined.” This is the significance
of waving lights.
Dhupa or scented sticks are burnt before the Deity. The smoke spreads the whole room.
It acts as a disinfectant. Burning of Dhupa denotes that the Lord is all-pervading and
that He fills the whole universe by His living presence. It is to remind this fact that
Dhupa is burnt. The devotee prays: “O Lord! Let the Vasanas and Samskaras dormant in
me vanish like the smoke of this Dhupa and become ashes. Let me become stainless.”
Burning of camphor denotes that the individual ego melts like the camphor and the
Jivatman becomes one with the supreme Light of lights.
The sandal paste reminds the devotee that he should, in his difficulties, be as patient
as the sandal. Sandal emanates sweet odour when it is rubbed on a hard surface and made
into a paste. So also the devotee should not murmur when difficulties arise, but on the
other hand, remain cheerful and happy and emanate sweetness and gentleness like the
sandal. He should not hate even his enemy. This is another precept we learn from this.
Though the sandalwood is crushed and made into a paste, it silently wears out emanating
only very sweet odour. One should not wish evil even to his enemy.
Prasada—Its Sacredness And Glory
Prasada is that which gives peace. Prasada is the sacred food offering of the Lord.
During Kirtana, worship, Puja, Havan and Arati, the devotee offers sweet rice, fruits,
jaggery, milk, coconut, plantain and such other articles to the Lord, according to his
ability. After offering them to the Lord, they are shared between the members of the house
or the Bhaktas in a temple.
Water, flowers, rice, etc., are offered to the Lord in worship. This denotes that the
Lord is pleased with even the smallest offering. What is wanted is the heart of the
devotee. The Lord says in the Gita: “Patram Pushpam Phalam Toyam Yo Me Bhaktya
Prayacchati; Tadaham Bhaktyupahritamasnami Prayatatmanah—Whoever offers a leaf, a
flower, a fruit or even water, with devotion, that I accept, offered as it is with a
loving heart.” It is not necessary that one should offer gold, silver and costly
dress to the Lord. The devotee offers these according to his ability and position in life,
thereby denoting that the whole wealth of the world belongs to the Lord. A rich man offers
costly things to the Lord. He feeds the poor and serves the sick, seeing the Lord in his
fellow-beings.
Puja is done with Bael leaves, flowers, Tulasi, Vibhuti and these are given as Prasada
from the Lord. Vibhuti is the Prasada of Lord Siva. It is to be applied on the forehead. A
small portion can be taken in. Kumkuma is the Prasada of Sri Devi or Sakti. It is to be
applied at the space between the eyebrows (Ajna or Bhrumadhya). Tulasi is the Prasada of
Lord Vishnu, Rama or Krishna. It is to be taken in. They are charged with mysterious
powers by the chanting of Mantras during Puja and Havan.
The mental Bhava of the devotee offering Bhog to the Lord has a very great effect. If
an ardent devotee of the Lord offers anything to the Lord, that Prasada, if taken, would
bring very great change even in the minds of atheists. The Grace of the Lord descends
through Prasada. Go through the life of Narada. You will realise the greatness of the
sacred leavings of the Lord as well as those of advanced Sadhakas and saints.
Namadeva offered rice, etc., to Panduranga Vitthala and He ate the food and shared it
with Namadeva as well. If the food is offered with an yearning heart, sometimes, the Lord
takes that food assuming a physical form. In other cases, the Lord enjoys the subtle
essence of the food offered, and the food remains as it is in the shape of Prasada. While
feeding Mahatmas and the poor people, that which is left behind is taken as Prasada. When
a sacrifice is performed, the participants share the Prasada which bestows the blessings
of the gods. When Dasaratha performed Putrakameshti (a sacrifice performed wishing for
son), he got a vessel full of sweetened rice which he gave to his queens, by taking which
they became pregnant. Prasada is the most sacred object for a devotee. One should consider
himself lucky to take the Prasada, and there is no restriction of any kind in taking
Prasada. Time and place, and the condition in which one is placed—all these do not
affect him in any way. Prasada is all-purifying.
The benefits of Prasada and Charanamrita are beyond description. They have the power to
change entirely the outlook of a man’s life. Prasada and Charanamrita have the power
to cure diseases and even bring back to life dead persons. There had been ever so many
instances in the past in this holy land of ours which bear witness to the potency and
efficacy of Prasada. Prasada destroys all pains and sins. It is an antidote for misery,
pain and anxiety. Faith is the important factor in testing the accuracy of this statement.
For faithless persons, it brings very little effect.
Those who are brought up in modern education and culture have forgotten all about the
glory of Prasada. Many English-educated persons do not attach any importance to Prasada
when they get it from Mahatmas. This is a serious mistake. Prasada is a great purifier. As
they are brought up in the western style of living, they have imbibed the spirit of
westerners and forgotten the spirit of the true children of Indian Rishis of yore. Live
for a week in Vrindavana or Ayodhya or Varanasi or Pandharpur. You will realise the glory
and the miraculous effects of Prasada. Many incurable diseases are cured. Many sincere
devotional aspirants get wonderful spiritual experiences from mere Prasada alone. Prasada
is a panacea. Prasada is a spiritual elixir. Prasada is the Grace of the Lord. Prasada is
a cure-all and an ideal pick-me-up. Prasada is an embodiment of Sakti. Prasada is Divinity
in manifestation. Prasada energises, vivifies, invigorates and infuses devotion. It should
be taken with great faith.
The Japa Mala
Significance of the Number of Beads
Generally, the rosary or Mala used for Japa contains 108 beads. A man breathes 21,600
times every day. If one does 200 Malas of Japa, it becomes 21,600; thereby, he does one
Japa for every breath. If he does 200 Malas of Japa every day, that amounts to remembrance
of God throughout the day. Malas may contain beads which form divisions of 108 also, so
that the same calculation can be maintained. The Meru (the central bead in the Mala)
denotes that you have done your Japa 108 times. This also denotes that every time you come
to the Meru bead, you have gone one step further on the spiritual path and crossed over
one obstacle. A portion of your ignorance is removed. A rosary or Mala is a whip to goad
you to do Japa. Mohammedans also have a rosary (Tasbi) in their hands when they repeat
their prayers. They roll the beads and repeat the name of Allah. Christians have their
paternoster.
The Raksha Stotra
Before sitting for Japa and meditation, the Raksha Stotra is generally repeated. It
means: “May the Lord protect me, staying in every part of my body.” Each part is
separately named and a particular Name of the Lord is repeated for the protection of that
part. Anganyasa and Karanyasa also have the same effect. They drive away the evil effects
of evil spirits, if any. The obstacles that stand in the way of concentration and
meditation are removed. Evil thoughts will not enter the mind. This is a prayer to remove
obstacles in Japa and meditation.
The Ochre Cloth And The Shaven Head
Symbols of Renunciation
The ochre colour (Gerua) of the dress of a Sannyasin indicates that he is as pure as
fire itself. He shines like the burnt gold, free from all impurities of desires and
Vasanas. It denotes purity. It stands for purity. For an aspirant who has taken to the
path of Nivritti Marga, it is a help. He will swerve and shrink from evil actions. This
cloth will remind him that he is not entitled to worldly enjoyments. Gradually his nature
will be moulded. This coloured cloth serves as an external symptom to show that one is a
Sannyasin.
A Sannyasin shaves his head completely. This removes from him all beauty. He will not
have to take care about dressing his hair with scented oils, etc. This shows that he has
renounced all external beauties and that he dwells in the Self which is Beauty of
beauties. This Mundana (shaving of head) indicates that he is no more of the world. He
should not desire any sensual object. It is only an external symbol of the mental state of
complete dispassion and turning away from the pleasures of the world. He removes his Choti
also at the time of Sannyasa to indicate that he is no more bound by the various Nitya and
Naimittika Karmas and that they have been burnt in the fire of Vairagya. Further, this
shaving of the head is suitable for a wandering life. The existence of long hairs will
prevent him from taking bath whenever he likes. Shaving will relieve him of much worry,
and the time he would have otherwise spent in drying, combing and dressing his hair he may
spend in prayers and meditation.
Conclusion
The Vedas and the Upanishads state that the ultimate truth in its pure and naked
form, very unceremoniously. The Itihasas, Puranas and Agamas give this truth a homely,
personal and symbolic touch through narration of history, legend and mythology.
Do not neglect outward symbols. Make a research study of our Vedic customs and
injunctions. You will find wonderful and precious gems in every one of them. Their utility
and efficacy will be revealed in following them.
May you all tread the path of Dharma and attain Kaivalya Moksha in this very birth.
CHAPTER 11
HINDU PHILOSOPHY—I
(THE SHAD-DARSANAS)
Philosophy—Its Origin And Its Limitations
Philosophy is the rational aspect of religion. It is an integral part of religion
in India. It is a rational enquiry into the nature of Truth or Reality. It gives clear
solutions for the profound, subtle problems of life. It shows the way to get rid of pain
and death and attain immortality and eternal bliss.
Philosophy has its root in the practical needs of man. Man wants to know about
transcendental matters when he is in a reflective state. There is an urge within him to
know about the secret of death, the secret of immortality, the nature of the soul, the
Creator and the world. Philosophy helps him to know all these things. Philosophy is the
self-expression of the growing spirit of man. The philosophers are its voice. Great
creative thinkers and philosophers appear in all ages. They elevate and inspire the
people.
Certain philosophical questions arise in the mind of man. What is this Samsara? Has it
any purpose? Is the world real or mere appearance? Is there any Creator or Governor of
this universe? If there is a Creator, what is His nature? What is the relation between man
and the Creator? Is there any way to escape from the round of births and deaths? Is there
any such thing as the Impersonal Absolute? If so, what is Its essential nature? How did
man come into bondage? What is his essential nature? Is he a part of the Supreme
Soul, or is he identical with It? What is the difference between Personal God and
the Impersonal Absolute? What is the source for this world? What is matter? What is mind?
What is individual soul? What is the goal of life? The search for a solution of these
problems is philosophy. Philosophy solves beautifully all these problems.
Death—The Starting Point Of Philosophy
The idea of death has ever been the strongest motive-power of religion and religious
life. Man is afraid of death. Man does not want to die. He wants to live for ever. This is
the starting point of philosophy. Philosophy enquires and investigates. It boldly
proclaims: “O man! Do not be afraid of death. There is an immortal abode. That is
Brahman. That is your own Atman which dwells in the chamber of your heart. Purify your
heart and meditate on this pure, immortal, changeless Self. You will attain
immortality.” Death is the ultimate pointer to the transiency of all things and the
existence of an ultimate Reality.
Various Schools Of Philosophy
A clear understanding of man’s relation to God is a matter of momentous importance
to students of philosophy and to all aspirants. Philosophers, prophets, saints, sages,
thinkers, Acharyas and great religious leaders of the world have tried to explain the
relation of man to God and the universe. Various schools of philosophy and different kinds
of religious beliefs have come into existence, on account of various explanations given by
different philosophers.
Philosophy And Intuition
Philosophy will take you to the gates of the realm of eternal bliss, but it cannot
allow you to enter that realm. Intuition or realisation is necessary for entering into
that holy land of everlasting joy and ineffable glory.
Hindu philosophy is not mere speculation or guesswork. It is lofty, sublime, unique and
systematic. It is based tin mystic spiritual experience, or Aparoksha Anubhuti. The seers,
sages and Rishis who had direct, intuitive perception of the Truth are the founders of the
different philosophical systems in India. The different schools of philosophy are all
based on the Srutis or the Vedas, directly or indirectly. Those who have studied carefully
the Upanishads will find that the revelations of the Srutis are in harmony with the
conclusions of philosophy.
The Orthodox And The Heterodox Systems Of Indian
Philosophy
The six systems of Indian philosophy or the Shad-Darsanas are the six orthodox
systems of philosophy. They are the six ways of looking at the Truth. They are (1) The
Nyaya; (2) The Vaiseshika; (3) The Sankhya; (4) The Yoga; (5) The Purva-Mimamsa; and (6)
The Uttara-Mimamsa, or the Vedanta.
The orthodox systems of philosophy believe in the authority of the Vedas. The heterodox
systems of philosophy do not believe in the authority of the Vedas. The six heterodox
systems of philosophy are:
1. The Materialistic School of Charvaka;
2. The System of the Jainas;
3. The School of Presentationists or Vaibhashikas (Buddhistic);
4. The School of Representationists or Sautrantikas (Buddhistic);
5. The School of Idealism or Yogacharas (Buddhistic); and
6. The School of Nihilism of the Madhyamikas (Buddhistic).
The Shad-Darsanas Or The Six Orthodox Schools
The Shad-Darsanas or the six orthodox systems grew directly out of the Vedas. Darsana
means literally sight or vision. Darsana means a system of philosophy.
The Darsana literature is philosophical. Each Darsana is a way of looking into the Truth;
is a standpoint in respect of the Truth.
Gautama Rishi systematised the principles of Nyaya or the Indian logical system. Kanada
composed the Vaiseshika Sutras. Kapila Muni founded the Sankhya system. Patanjali Maharshi
is the first systematiser of the Yoga school. He composed his Yoga Sutras. The
Yoga-Darsana of Patanjali is a celebrated text-book on Raja Yoga. Jaimini, a disciple of
Vyasa, composed the Sutras of the Mimamsa school, which is based on the ritual-sections of
the Vedas. Badarayana composed his famous Vedanta-Sutras or Brahma-Sutras which expound
the teachings of the Upanishads. The different schools of the Vedanta have built their
philosophy on the foundation of these Sutras.
Different Ways Of Approach To The Same Goal
The six schools of thought are like the six different roads which lead to one city. You
may go to Bombay by train or aeroplane or motor bus or any other vehicle. Even so, you can
reach the goal of life through Yoga, or Vedanta, or any other path. The methods or ways of
approach to the Goal are different to suit people of different temperaments, capacities
and mental calibre. But they all have one aim, viz., removal of ignorance and its effects
of pain and sufferings and the attainment of freedom, perfection, immortality and eternal
bliss by union of the individual soul (Jivatman) with the Supreme Soul (Paramatman).
No student of Hinduism ought to be satisfied without acquiring a clear and accurate
knowledge of the principal distinguishing characteristics of the six philosophical
schools. The more advanced scholar should study the original Sutras in which the doctrines
of each school are enunciated. Study of the six schools of philosophy will sharpen the
intellect and give you vast knowledge. You will have a clear and comprehensive
understanding of the Truth. Each system is a step or rung in the spiritual ladder.
Interrelation Between The Six Systems
The six schools are divided into three groups: (i) The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika, (ii)
The Sankhya and the Yoga, and (iii) The Mimamsa and the Vedanta. The Vaiseshika is a
supplement of the Nyaya. The Yoga is a supplement of the Sankhya. The Vedanta is an
amplification and fulfilment of the Sankhya. Study of Vyakarana (grammar), Mimamsa, Nyaya
and Sankhya is necessary to understand the Vedanta. The Nyaya sharpens the intellect and
enables the aspirants to grasp the Vedanta. The Nyaya is considered as a prerequisite for
all philosophical enquiry.
The Vaiseshika is not very much in honour now. The Nyaya is popular. The Sankhya is not
a living faith. The Yoga is practised by a few in its practical form. The Vedanta is the
most popular of all the schools today.
The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika will give you an analysis of the world of experience. They
arrange all the things of the world into certain kinds or categories (Padarthas). They
explain how God has made all this material world out of atoms and molecules. They show the
way to attain knowledge of God. The Sankhya will provide you with deep knowledge of Hindu
psychology. Kapila Muni was the father of psychology. The Yoga deals with the control of
Vrittis, or thought-waves, and with meditation. The Yoga system shows the ways to
discipline the mind and the senses. The Yoga will help you to cultivate concentration and
one-pointedness of mind and enter into Nirvikalpa Samadhi or the Superconscious State. The
Purva-Mimamsa deals with the Karma-Kanda of the Vedas, and the Uttara-Mimamsa with the
Jnana-Kanda. The Uttara-Mimamsa is also known as the Vedanta-Darsana. This is the
corner-stone of Hinduism. The Vedanta philosophy explains in detail the nature of Brahman
or the Eternal Being, and shows that the individual soul is, in essence, identical with
the Supreme Self. It gives methods to remove Avidya or the veil of ignorance and to merge
oneself in the ocean of bliss or Brahman.
The Nyaya calls ignorance Mithya Jnana, false knowledge. The Sankhya styles it Aviveka,
non-discrimination between the real and the unreal. The Vedanta names it Avidya,
nescience. Each philosophy aims at its eradication by Knowledge or Jnana. Then one attains
eternal bliss or immortality.
By study of Nyaya and Vaiseshika, one learns to utilise his intellect to find out
fallacies and to know the material constitution of the world. By study of Sankhya, one
understands the course of evolution. By study and practice of Yoga, one gains
self-restraint and obtains mastery over mind and senses. By practice of Vedanta, one
reaches the highest rung of the ladder of spirituality or the pinnacle of divine glory,
oneness with the Supreme Being, by the destruction of ignorance (Avidya).
Vedanta—The Most Satisfactory System Of Philosophy
Some of the doctrines of the Nyaya, the Vaiseshika, the Sankhya and the Yoga are
opposed to the teachings of the Vedas. These systems are only superficially based on the
Vedas. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika schools rely too much on human reason, though they
accept the Vedas as the supreme authority. Human intellect is frail and finite. It has got
its limitations. It functions within time, space and causation. Its findings cannot be
infallible. It cannot solve transcendental matters. Vedas only are infallible and
authoritative. They contain the revelations or direct intuitional experiences of seers and
Rishis. These experiences will tally with the experiences of those who have attained
Knowledge of the Self (Brahma-Jnana).
The Vedanta is the most satisfactory system of philosophy. It has been evolved out of
the Upanishads. It has superseded all other schools. The Mimamsa school had laid great
stress on rituals, or Karma-Kanda. According to the Mimamsa school, Karma or ritual is
all-in-all in the Veda. Upasana (worship) and Jnana (knowledge) are only accessories to
Karma. This view is refuted by the Vedanta school. According to the Vedanta,
Self-realisation (Jnana) is the foremost thing, and ritual and worship are accessories.
Karma will take one to heaven which is only an impermanent place of refined sensual
enjoyment. Karma cannot destroy the cycle of births and deaths, and cannot give eternal
bliss and immortality.
During the time of Sankaracharya, all the six schools of philosophy flourished.
Therefore, he had to refute the other systems in order to establish his absolute monism
(Kevala Advaita). But, nowadays, Sankhya, Vaiseshika, etc., are in name only. Even now,
some Hindu preachers, Sannyasins and Mandalesvars try to establish Advaita Vedanta by
refuting these old systems. This is a mistake. They will have to refute at the present
moment materialism, agnosticism, atheism and science, and then establish Advaita Vedanta.
The Nyaya
Introduction
Salutations to Rishi Gautama, the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy.
The Nyaya or Hindu logic was founded by Gautama Rishi, who is also known by the names
Akshapada and Dirghatapas. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy.
The word Nyaya signifies going into a subject, i.e., investigating it
analytically. In this sense of analysis, the word Nyaya is exactly opposed to Sankhya,
synthesis. The Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidya or the Science of Debate, Vada-Vidya
or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature of the Nyaya.
The Nyaya is not merely formal logic, but a complete epistemology. Ordinary people
think that the Nyaya is chiefly concerned with logic. Logic is merely a part or a single
topic. The purpose of the Nyaya is a critical examination of the objects of knowledge by
means of the canons of logical proof. The Nyaya system deals critically with metaphysical
problems. It contains discussions on psychology, logic, metaphysics and theology.
The Nyaya—A Method of Philosophical Enquiry
The Nyaya is intended to furnish a correct method of philosophical enquiry into all the
objects and subjects of human knowledge, including the process of reasoning and laws of
thought. The evidence of the senses is submitted to a critical enquiry. The Nyaya gives a
description of the mechanism of knowledge in detail. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore
the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience,
and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika
are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are
allied systems. They both believe in a Personal God, a plurality of souls and an atomic
universe. Further, they use many arguments in common.
The Nyaya is the basis of all Sanskrit philosophical studies. It is an introduction to
all systematic philosophy. It is the preliminary course for a student of philosophy. You
cannot understand the Brahma-Sutras of Sri Vyasa without a knowledge of the Nyaya. A study
of the Nyaya develops the power of reasoning or arguing. It renders the intellect sharp
and subtle. You cannot make Vedantic enquiry without a sharp and subtle intellect. The
Kathopanishad says: “Drisyate Tvagryaya Buddhya Sukshmaya Sukshma-Darsibhih—It
(the Atman) is beheld by subtle seers through their sharp and subtle intellect.”
The ‘Nyaya Sutra’ by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya philosophy. This is
the most famous book of the school. Numerous commentaries have been written on this book
by various authors, viz., Nyaya-Bhashya by Vatsyayana, Nyayalankara by Srikantha,
Nyaya-Manjari by Jayanta, Nyaya-Bodhini by Govardhana, Nyaya-Varttika-Tatparya-Tika by
Vachaspati Misra, etc.
Knowledge
All knowledge implies four conditions: (i) the subject or the Pramata, the cogniser,
(ii) the object or the Prameya, (iii) the resulting state of cognition or the Pramiti and
(iv) the means of knowledge or the Pramana.
Prameya or the objects of which right knowledge is to be obtained, are twelve, viz.,
(i) Soul (Atman), (ii) Body (Sarira), (iii) Senses (Indriyas), (iv) Objects of senses
(Artha), (v) Intellect (Buddhi), (vi) Mind (Manas), (vii) Activity (Pravritti), (viii)
Fault (Dosha), (ix) Transmigration (Pretyabhava), (x) Fruit (Phala), (xi) Pain (Duhkha),
and (xii) Salvation (Apavarga).
Perception (Pratyaksha), inference (Anumana), comparison (Upamana), and word, or verbal
testimony (Sabda) are the Pramanas or the means of right knowledge. Sabda, or verbal
testimony, includes Vedic revelation. Pratyaksha is perception by the senses.
God, Soul And Universe
God
The Nyaya says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the
control of God. God supervises the work of Adrishta. The intelligent principle of
Adrishta, which governs the fate of man, acts under the direction of God. God does not
alter the course of Adrishta but renders possible its operation. God is the bestower of
the fruits of actions of human beings. God is a Special Soul endowed with omnipotence and
omniscience, by which He guides and regulates the world.
God is a Personal Being. He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge). Adharma
(demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichha (desire) and
Prayatna (volitional effort). God is ONE, Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana
(eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu
(all-pervading).
The Soul
The soul is a real being. It is an eternal entity. Desire, aversion, volition,
pleasure, pain, intelligence and cognition are its qualities or marks. The object of the
notion of ‘I’ is the soul. No cognition or recollection is possible without a
soul. The eye cannot see objects and the ear cannot hear sounds without a soul. There
should be an agent to use the instruments (senses). That agent is the soul. After an
object is seen, even if the eyes are both destroyed, the knowledge that I have seen remains.
This knowledge is not a quality of either the objects or the senses. The mind is not the
soul. It is only an instrument of the soul, by means of which it thinks. The self is the
subject. The soul exists even when the body perishes, the senses are cut off and the mind
is controlled. There are infinite numbers of souls.
The Universe
The universe is a composite of eternal, unalterable, causeless atoms, which exists
independently of our thoughts. The universe is the modification of the atoms (Paramanus)
of the physical elements: Earth (Prithvi), Water (Apas), Fire (Tejas) and Air (Vayu). The
Nyaya admits nine objects (Dravyas), viz., Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether, Time, Space
(Quarters), Mind and the Self (Atman).
The Cause Of Bondage And The Means To Emancipation
Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana), faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and
pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. False notion or false knowledge is at the root of all
misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike
(Raga-Dvesha); from Raga-Dvesha proceeds Karma or action—virtuous or
vicious—which forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward
or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain. It is the aim of philosophy to
eradicate the false notion or Mithya-Jnana which is at the root of all miseries and pains.
On the successive annihilation of misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain, there
follows release (Apavarga).
The Sixteen Categories
One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the
true knowledge of the sixteen categories. The sixteen categories are: means of right
knowledge (Pramana), object of right knowledge (Prameya), doubt (Samsaya), purpose
(Prayojana), familiar instance (Drishtanta), established tenet (Siddhanta), members
(Avayava), argumentation (Tarka), ascertainment (Nirnaya), discussion (Vada), wrangling
(Jalpa), cavil (Vitanda), fallacy (Hetvabhasa), quibble (Chala), futility (Jati), and
occasion for rebuke (Nigraha-sthana).
There is, first, the state of Samsaya or doubt about the point to be discussed. Next
comes the Prayojana or motive for discussing it. Next follows a Drishtanta or example
which leads to the Siddhanta or established conclusion. Then comes the objector with his
Avayava or argument, split up into five members. Next follows the Tarka or refutation, and
the Nirnaya or ascertainment of the true state of the case. A further Vada or controversy
takes place, which leads to Jalpa or mere wrangling. This is followed by Vitanda or
cavilling, Hetvabhasa or fallacious reasoning, and Nigraha-sthana, the putting an end to
all discussion by a demonstration of the objector’s incapacity for argument.
When one attains the true knowledge, his faults, viz., affection (Raga), aversion
(Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish. Aversion includes anger, envy, malice and hatred.
Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion,
conceit, carelessness and misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. You
must put an end to the chain, which begins with misapprehension or false knowledge and
ends with pain, if you wish to attain release. If false knowledge vanishes, faults will
disappear. If faults vanish, one is freed from activity and the consequent transmigration
and pains.
Transmigration, which consists in the soul’s leaving one body and taking another,
is the cause of its undergoing pleasure and pain. A soul which is no longer subject to
transmigration is freed from all pains. The soul attains release as soon as there is an
end to the body, and consequently to pleasure and pain.
The State of Apavarga or Release
Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is
cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of
the self. It is destruction of bondage. Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or
Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind
with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental
impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation
(Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a word without meaning. It is a state of painless,
passionless existence, like that of a stone without sensation and interest.
To Sum Up
This world has begun by a combination of atoms. It has Samyoga (conjunction) and Viyoga
(disassociation). The cause of the world is the Paramanus (atoms) and the nine Dravyas
(materials), including Isvara (God). Isvara has Nitya-Jnana (eternal knowledge) who has
also Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as Gunas (qualities). He is Vibhu (all-pervading). Jiva
is doer and enjoyer. He has several attributes. Jivas are endless. The cause for bondage
is ignorance (Ajnana). Twenty-one kinds of pain constitute bondage. Moksha is destruction
of all kinds of pain. Knowledge of the Atman, as is distinct from others, is
Moksha-Sadhana. Gautama advocates Arambhavada and Anyathakhyati (theory of the production
of a new effect from every cause and of realistic epistemology).
The Vaiseshika
Introduction
Silent adorations to Kanada Rishi, the founder of the Vaiseshika system of philosophy.
Rishi Kanada is also known by the names, Aulukya and Kasyapa.
The Vaiseshika system takes its name from Visesha or particularity which is the
characteristic differentia of things. The aphorisms of Kanada contain the essence of the
Vaiseshika philosophy. The principal subject treated therein is Visesha, one of the six
Padarthas or categories enumerated by the founder.
The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika
The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya agree in their essential principles, such as the nature
and qualities of the Self and the atomic theory of the universe. The Vaiseshika is a
supplement to the Nyaya. The Vaiseshika has, for its chief objective, the analysis of
experience. It begins by arranging its enquiries under categories (Padarthas), i.e.,
enumeration of certain general properties or attributes that may be predicated of existing
things. It formulates general conceptions, which apply to things known, whether by the
senses or by inference, or by authority.
The Aphorisms Of Kanada
There are ten chapters in Kanada’s book. The first chapter deals with the entire
group of Padarthas or predicables. In the second chapter, Kanada has ascertained
substance. In the third chapter, he has given a description of the soul and the inner
sense. In the fourth chapter, he has discussed the body and its constituents. In the fifth
chapter, he has established Karma or action. In the sixth chapter, he has considered
Dharma or virtue according to scriptures. In the seventh chapter, he has established
attribute and Samavaya (co-inherence or combination). In the eighth chapter, he has
ascertained the manifestation of knowledge, its source, and so on. In the ninth chapter,
he has established the particular or concrete understanding. And, in the tenth chapter, he
has established the differences in the attributes of the soul.
There is enumeration of Padarthas (substances) in the beginning. Then there is
definition. Then comes examination or demonstration.
This system is chiefly concerned with the determination of the Padarthas and yet,
Kanada opens the subject with an enquiry into Dharma, because Dharma is at the root of the
knowledge of the essence of the Padarthas. The first Sutra is: Yatobhyudayanihsreyasa-siddhih
sa dharmah—Dharma is that which exalts and bestows the Supreme Good or Moksha
(cessation of pain).
The Seven Padarthas Or Categories
Padartha means literally the meaning of a word. But here it denotes a
substance discussed in philosophy. A Padartha is an object which can be thought (Artha)
and named (Pada). All things which exist, which can be perceived and named, all objects of
experience, are Padarthas. Compound substances are dependent and transitory. Simple
substances are eternal and independent.
The Padarthas of the Vaiseshika are the following: (i) Substance (Dravya), (ii) Quality
or property (Guna), (iii) Action (Karma), (iv) Generality of properties (Samanya), (v)
Particularity (Visesha), (vi) Co-inherence or perpetual intimate relation (Samavaya), and
(vii) Non-existence or negation of existence (Abhava). The first three categories of
substance, quality and action have a real objective existence. The next three, viz.,
generality, particularity and inherence are logical categories. They are products of
intellectual discrimination. Kanada enumerated only six categories, the seventh was added
by later writers.
Earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind are the nine Dravyas or
substances. The first four of these and the last are held to be atomic. The first four are
both eternal and non-eternal, non-eternal in their various compounds and eternal in their
ultimate atoms to which they must be traced back.
Mind is an eternal substance. It does not pervade everywhere like the soul. It is
atomic. It can admit only one thought at a time.
There are seventeen qualities inherent in the nine substances, viz., colour (Rupa),
taste (Rasa), smell (Gandha), touch (Sparsa), numbers (Sankhya), measures (Parimanani),
separateness or individuality (Prithaktvam), conjunction and disconjunction
(Samyoga-vibhagam), priority and posterity (Paratva-aparatva), intellection or
understanding (Buddhayah), pleasure and pain (Sukha-duhkha), desire and aversion
(Ichha-dvesha), and volitions (Prayatnah). Seven others are said to be implied, viz.,
gravity, fluidity, viscidity, faculty, merit, demerit and sound—making twenty-four in
all. Sixteen of these qualities belong to material substances. The other eight, viz.,
understanding, volition, desire, aversion, pleasure, pain, merit and demerit are the
properties of the soul.
The third category, Karma or action, consists of five kinds of acts, viz., elevation or
throwing upwards, depression or throwing downwards, contraction, expansion and motion.
The fourth category, Samanya or generality of properties, is twofold, viz., (i) higher
and lower generality and (ii) that of genus and species.
The fifth category, Visesha or particularity, belongs to the nine eternal substances of
the first category, all of which have an eternal ultimate difference distinguishing each
from the others. Therefore, the system is called Vaiseshika.
The sixth category, Samavaya or co-inherence, is of only one kind. It is the
co-inherence between a substance and its qualities, between a genus or species and its
individuals, between any object and the general idea connected with it and is thought to
be a real entity.
There are four kinds of Abhava, the seventh category, viz., antecedent non-existence,
cessation of existence, mutual non-existence and absolute non-existence.
Knowledge of the Padarthas Secures Supreme Good
Knowledge of the Padarthas is the means of attaining the Supreme Good. The Supreme Good
results from the knowledge produced—by a particular Dharma—of the essence of the
Padarthas, by means of their resemblances and differences.
The Principle Of Adrishta And Its Inadequacies
Kanada does not openly refer to God in his Sutras. His belief was that the formation of
the world was the result of Adrishta, the unseen force of Karmas or acts. He traces
the primal activities of the atoms and souls to the principle of Adrishta.
The followers of Kanada introduce God as the efficient cause of the world. The atoms
are the material cause of the universe.
The unthinking atoms have not the power and the intelligence to run this universe in an
orderly manner. Surely, the activities of the atoms are regulated by an omniscient and
omnipotent God. Inference and scriptures compel us to admit God. What is that intelligence
which makes the Adrishta to operate? That intelligence is God. The five elements are
effects. They must be preceded by someone who has a knowledge of them. That
‘someone’ is God. There must be an author for the Vedas. The contents of the
Vedas are destitute of error. The author is free from deceit. He must be an omniscient
Being.
The souls are destitute of intelligence in the state of dissolution. Hence they cannot
control the activities of the atoms. There is no source of motion within the atoms.
Therefore, there must be a first mover of the atom. That First Mover is the Creator or
God.
Atomic Theory Of The Universe
In the Vaiseshika system, the formation of the world is supposed to be effected by the
aggregation of atoms. These atoms are countless and eternal. They are eternally
aggregated, disintegrated and redisintegrated by the power of Adrishta. An atom is defined
as ‘something existing, having no cause, and eternal’. It is less than the
least, invisible, indivisible, intangible and imperceptible by the senses. Each atom has a
Visesha or eternal essence of its own. The combination of these atoms is first into an
aggregate of two (Dvyanu, dyad). Three of them, again combine into a particle, called
Trasarenu (Triad), which like a mote in a sunbeam has just sufficient magnitude to be
perceptible.
There are four classes of Paramanus, viz., Paramanus of earth, water, fire and air. The
individual atoms combine with others, and again disintegrate after some time.
The Vaiseshika cosmogony is dualistic in the sense of assuming the existence of eternal
atoms side by side with eternal souls. It has not decided positively the exact relation
between soul and matter.
Body And Soul
The body is subtle in Pralaya and gross in creation. The time, place and circumstances
of birth, family and the span of life are all determined by the Adrishta.
The individual souls are eternal, manifold, eternally separate from one another, and
distinct from the body, senses and mind; and yet capable of apprehension, volition,
desire, aversion, pleasure, pain, merit and demerit. They are infinite, ubiquitous or
omnipresent and diffused everywhere throughout space. A man’s soul is as much in New
York as in Bombay, although it can only apprehend and feel and act where the body is. The
soul and the mind are not objects of perception.
The soul is absolutely free from all connections with qualities in the state of Moksha
or release. It regains its independence.
Birth, Death And Salvation
Conjunction of soul with body, sense and life, produced by Dharma and Adharma, is
called birth, and disjunction of body and mind produced by them is called death.
Moksha consists in the non-existence of conjunction with the body, when there is, at
the same time, no potential body existing and consequently rebirth cannot take place.
Bondage And Release
Pleasure and pain result from the contact of soul, sense, mind and object.
From pleasure arises desire. From pleasure derived from the enjoyment of garlands,
sandal paste, women and other objects, Raga or desire is produced successively for
pleasure of a similar kind or for the means of attaining it. From pain caused by snakes,
scorpions, thorns and the like, aversion arises with regard to such pain or with regard to
its source.
A very powerful impression is produced by constant or habitual experience of objects,
through the influence of which, a sad lover who does not win his mistress sees his beloved
in every object. He who has been bitten by a snake beholds snakes everywhere, on account
of a strong impression regarding that.
The Faults That Lead to Bondage
Desire (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and infatuation (Moha) are called faults (Doshas), as
they are incentives to activity which serves to bind the doer to this world. Gautama also
says: “Faults have for their characteristic, incitement to activity or worldly
occupation” (Nyaya Sutras, I-1-xviii).
The Knowledge That Results In Release
Intuitive knowledge of the Self destroys false knowledge. Consequently, attraction,
aversion, stupidity or Moha and other faults vanish. Then activity also disappears. Then
birth due to action does not take place. Consequently, pain connected with birth also
disappears.
The Sankhya
Introduction
Obeisance to Sri Kapila Muni, the founder of the Sankhya system of philosophy, the son
of Brahma, the Avatara of Vishnu.
The word ‘Sankhya’ means ‘number’. The system gives an enumeration
of the principles of the universe, twenty-five in number. Hence the name is quite
appropriate. The term ‘Sankhya’ is used in the sense of ‘Vichara’ or
‘philosophical reflection’ also.
In the Sankhya system, there is no analytical enquiry into the universe as actually
existing, arranged under topics and categories. There is a synthetical system, starting
from an original primordial Tattva or Principle, called Prakriti, that which evolves or
produces or brings forth (Prakaroti) everything else.
Perception (Pratyaksha), inference (Anumana) and right affirmation (Apta Vakya) are the
three Pramanas or proofs in the Sankhya system. The word Apta means fit or right. It is
applied to the Vedas or inspired teachers. The Naiyayikas have four kinds of proofs, viz.,
perception, inference, comparison and verbal authority. The Mimamsakas recognise six kinds
of proofs.
Dual Concept of Purusha and Prakriti
The Sankhya system is generally studied next to the Nyaya. It is a beautiful system of
philosophy. The western philosophers also have great admiration for this system. It is
more categorically dualistic. It denies that anything can be produced out of nothing. It
assumes the reality of Purusha and Prakriti, the knowing Self and the objects known.
Prakriti and Purusha are Anadi (beginningless) and Ananta (infinite).
Non-discrimination between the two is the cause for birth and death. Discrimination
between Prakriti and Purusha gives Mukti (salvation). Both Purusha and Prakriti are Sat
(real). Purusha is Asanga (unattached). He is consciousness, all-pervading and eternal.
Prakriti is doer and enjoyer. Souls are countless.
Non-acceptance of Isvara or God
The Sankhya system is called Nir-Isvara (Godless) Sankhya. It is atheistical. The
Sankhyas do not believe in Isvara. They do not accept Isvara (God). The creation produced
by Prakriti has an existence of its own, independent of all connection with the particular
Purusha to which it is united. So the Sankhyas say that there is no need for an
intelligent Creator of the world, or even of any superintending power.
This is a mistake; according to the Vedanta, Prakriti is always under the control of
the Lord. It cannot do anything by itself. The Lord gazes at Prakriti. Then alone it is
put in motion, and it begins to create. Prakriti is non-intelligent. An intelligent
Creator alone can have a thought-out plan for the universe. Prakriti is only a helper
(Sahakari). This is the theory of Vedanta.
Theory of Evolution and Involution
The Sankhya adopts the theory of evolution and involution. The cause and effect are the
undeveloped and developed states of one and the same substance. There is no such thing as
total destruction. In destruction, the effect is involved into its cause. That is all.
There cannot be any production of something out of nothing. That which is not cannot be
developed into that which is. The production of what does not already exist potentially is
impossible like a horn on a man, because there must, of necessity, be a material out of
which a product is developed, and because everything cannot occur everywhere at all times,
and also because anything possible must be produced from something competent to produce
it.
That which does not exist cannot be brought into existence by an agent. It would be
useless to grind groundnut, unless the oil existed in it. The same force applied to sand
or orange would not express groundnut oil. The manifestation of the oil is a proof that it
was contained in the groundnut and consequently, a proof of the existence of the source
from which it is derived.
The effect truly exists beforehand in its cause. This is one of the central features of
the Sankhya system of philosophy. Cause is a substance in which the effect subsists in a
latent form. Just as the whole tree exists in a latent or dormant state in the seed, so
also the whole world exists in a latent state in Prakriti, the Avyakta (unevolved), or the
Avyakrita (undifferentiated). The effect is of the same nature as the cause. The effect or
product is not different from the material of which it is composed.
Fourfold Classification of the Twenty-five Tattvas
The Sankhya gives a description of categories based on their respective productive
efficiency, viz., (i) Productive (Prakriti), (ii) Productive and Produced
(Prakriti-Vikriti), (iii) Produced (Vikriti) and (iv) Neither Productive nor Produced
(Anubhavarupa). This fourfold classification includes all the twenty-five principles or
Tattvas. Prakriti or Nature or Pradhana (chief) is purely productive. It is the root of
all. It is not a product. It is a creative force, evolver, producer. Seven
principles—intellect (Buddhi), egoism (Ahankara) and the five Tanmatras (subtle
rudiments)—are productions and productive. Buddhi is productive, as Ahankara is
evolved out of it. It is produced also, as it itself is evolved out of Prakriti. Egoism is
a production, as it is derived from intellect. It is productive, as it gives origin to the
five subtle rudiments or Tanmatras. The subtle rudiments are derived from egoism. Hence
they are productions. They give origin to the five elements. Hence they are productive.
The sixteen principles, the ten organs, the mind and the five elements, are productions
only. They are unproductive, because none of them can give birth to a substance
essentially different from itself. The Purusha or Spirit is neither a production, nor is
it productive. It is without attributes.
The Object of the Sankhya Philosophy
The enquiry into this system of philosophy is to find out the means for eradicating the
three sorts of pain, viz., internal or Adhyatmika (e.g., fever and other diseases),
celestial or Adhidaivika (thunder, cold, heat, rain, etc.), and external or Adhibhautika
(pain from animals, scorpion, etc.), and the disease of rebirths. Pain is an
embarrassment. It stands in the way of doing Yoga Sadhana and attaining Moksha or release.
Kapila Muni imparted a knowledge of the twenty-five principles which annihilates this
pain. According to the Sankhya philosophy, he who knows the twenty-five principles attains
liberation. The ultimate cessation of the three kinds of pain is the final goal of life.
Prakriti
‘Prakriti’ means that which is primary, that which precedes what is made. It
comes from ‘Pra’ (before) and ‘Kri’ (to make). It resembles the
Vedantic Maya. It is the one root of the universe. It is called Pradhana or the chief,
because all effects are founded on it and it is the root of the universe and of all
objects.
Characteristics of Prakriti
Pradhana or Prakriti is eternal, all-pervading, immovable. It is one. It has no cause,
but is the cause of all effects. Prakriti is independent and uncaused, while the products
are caused and dependent. Prakriti depends only on the activity of its own constituent
Gunas (metaphysical properties).
Prakriti is destitute of intelligence. It is like a string of three strands. The three
Gunas form the three strands. Prakriti is mere dead matter which is equipped with certain
potentialities due to the Gunas.
The Modifications of Prakriti
Crude matter is without form. Mahat or the Cosmic Intelligence is its first form.
Intellect is the matter for egoism. Egoism is a form of intellect. It is the matter from
which the senses and the rudimental elements are formed. The senses and the rudimental
elements are forms of egoism. The gross elements are forms of the rudimental elements.
Intellect, egoism and the five subtle rudiments or Tanmatras are the effects of
Prakriti. This creation, from intellect down to the elements, is brought about by the
modifications of Prakriti. Having observed the effects, the cause (Prakriti) is inferred.
It is imperceptible from its subtlety. It must, therefore, be inferred from its effects.
The Function of Prakriti
Prakriti is the basis of all objective existence. Prakriti does not create for itself.
All objects are for the enjoyment of the spirit or soul. Prakriti creates only when it
comes into union with Purusha, like a crystal vase with a flower. This work is done for
the emancipation of each soul. As it is the function of milk to nourish the calf, so it is
the function of Prakriti to liberate the soul.
The Gunas
According to the Sankhya philosophy, Prakriti is composed of three Gunas or forces,
called Sattva (purity, light, harmony), Rajas (passion, activity, motion) and Tamas
(inertia, darkness, inertness, inactivity).
Guna means a cord. The Gunas bind the soul with a triple bond. These Gunas are not the
Nyaya-Vaiseshika Gunas. They are the actual substances or ingredients, of which Prakriti
is constituted. They make up the whole world evolved out of Prakriti. They are not
conjoined in equal quantities, but in varying proportions, one or the other being in
excess. Just as Sat-Chit-Ananda is the Vedantic trinity, so also the Gunas are the
Sankhyan trinity.
Interaction Between the Gunas Leads to Evolution
The three Gunas are never separate. They support one another. They intermingle with one
another. They are intimately related as the flame, the oil and the wick of a lamp. They
form the very substance of Prakriti. All objects are composed of the three Gunas. The
Gunas act on one another. Then there is evolution or manifestation. Destruction is only
non-manifestation.
The Gunas are the objects. Purusha is the witness-subject. Prakriti evolves under the
influence of Purusha. Mahat or the Great (Intellect), the Cause of the whole world, is the
first product of the evolution of Prakriti. Ahankara arises after Buddhi. Agency belongs
to Ahankara. It is the principle that creates individuality. Mind is born of Ahankara. It
carries out the orders of the will through the organs of action (Karma Indriyas). It
reflects and doubts (Sankalpa-Vikalpa). It synthesises the sense-data into percepts. The
mind takes part in both perception and action. There is no separate Prana Tattva in the
Sankhya system. The Vedanta system has a separate Prana Tattva. In the Sankhya system,
mind, with the organs, produces the five vital airs. Prana is a modification of the
senses. It does not subsist in their absence.
Characteristics of the Three Gunas
Sattva is equilibrium. When Sattva prevails, there is peace or tranquillity. Rajas is
activity which is expressed as Raga-Dvesha, likes or dislikes, love or hatred, attraction
or repulsion. Tamas is that binding force with a tendency to lethargy, sloth and foolish
actions. It causes delusion or non-discrimination.
When Sattva is predominant, it overpowers Rajas and Tamas. When Rajas is dominant, it
overpowers Sattva and Tamas. When Tamas is predominant, it overpowers Rajas and Sattva.
How Man Is Affected by the Three Gunas
There are three Gunas in every man. Sometimes, Sattva prevails in him. Then he is calm
and tranquil. He reflects and meditates. At other times, Rajas prevails in him and he does
various sorts of worldly activities. He is passionate and active. Sometimes, Tamas
prevails. He becomes lazy, dull, inactive and careless. Tamas generates delusion.
Again, one of these Gunas is generally predominant in different men. A Sattvic man is
virtuous. He leads a pure and pious life. A Rajasic man is passionate and active. A
Tamasic man is dull and inactive.
Sattva makes a man divine and noble, Rajas makes him thoroughly human and selfish, and
Tamas makes him bestial and ignorant. There is much Sattva in a sage or saint and there is
much Rajas in a soldier, politician and businessman.
The Purusha
Characteristics of the Purusha
The Purusha or the Self is beyond Prakriti. It is eternally separate from the latter.
Purusha is without beginning or end. It is without attributes and without qualities. It is
subtle and omnipresent. It is beyond mind, intellect and the senses. It is beyond time,
space and causality. It is the eternal seer. It is perfect and immutable. It is pure
consciousness (Chidrupa).
The Purusha is not the doer. It is the witness. The Purusha is like a crystal without
any colour. It appears to be coloured by the different colours which are placed before it.
It is not material. It is not a result of combination. Hence it is immortal. The Purushas
or souls are infinite in number, according to the Sankhya. There are many Purushas. If the
Purushas were one, all should become free if any one attained release.
The different souls are fundamentally identical in nature. There is no movement for the
Purusha. It does not go anywhere when it attains freedom or release.
Souls exist eternally separate from each other and from Prakriti. Each soul retains its
individuality. It remains unchanged through all transmigrations. Each soul is a witness of
the act of a separate creation, without taking part in the act. It is a looker-on uniting
itself with the unintelligent Prakriti, like a lame man mounted on a blind man’s
shoulders, in order to behold the phenomena of creation, which Prakriti herself is not
able to observe.
The Purusha or the Self is the witness (Sakshi), a spectator (Drashta), a by-stander
(Madhyastha), solitary (Kaivalya), passive and indifferent (Udasina).
Inference of the Existence of the Purusha
Intelligence cannot belong to the intellect, because the intellect is material and is
the effect of Prakriti which is non-intelligent. If intelligence is absent in the cause,
it cannot manifest itself in the effect. Therefore, there must be a distinct principle of
intelligence and this principle is Purusha or the Self.
The insentient body seems sentient on account of its union with the Self, and the Self
appears as the agent. Just as a pot with cold water appears to be cold, with hot water
seems to be hot, so intellect and the rest seem to be sentient on account of union with
the Purusha. This mutual transfer of properties is like that of fire and iron, or that of
the sun and water.
There must be a Supervisor over and above the Pradhana or Prakriti. The Supervisor is
Purusha or the Self.
Prakriti and its products are objects of enjoyment. There must exist an enjoyer who
must be an intelligent principle. This intelligent enjoyer is Purusha or the Self.
Just as chair and bench are for the use of another, so also this body, senses and mind
are for the use of the Self which is immaterial, as it is destitute of attributes and as
it is beyond the Gunas. The Purusha is the witness of the Gunas. The Gunas are the
objects. Purusha is the witness-subject. Hence, it is not affected by pleasure, pain and
delusion which are attributes of the three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas, respectively.
If pain is natural to the Purusha and if the Purusha is not naturally free from the action
of the Gunas, no salvation from rebirth is possible.
Purusha and Prakriti—A Contrast
The characteristics of Prakriti and Purusha are contrary in nature. Purusha is
consciousness, while Prakriti is non-consciousness. Purusha is inactive (Akarta), while
Prakriti is active. Purusha is destitute of the Gunas, while Prakriti is characterised by
the three Gunas. Purusha is unchanging, while Prakriti is changing. The knower is Purusha.
The known is Prakriti. The knower is the subject or the silent witness. The known is the
visible object.
The Universe
The world is evolved with its different elements when the equilibrium in Prakriti is
disturbed. The countless Purushas exert on Prakriti a mechanical force which distracts the
equipoise of Prakriti and produces a movement. Then the evolution of the universe starts.
The Process of Evolution and Involution
Prakriti is the root of the universe. Prakriti is both the material and the efficient
cause of the universe. From this Prakriti emanates the cosmic Buddhi or Mahat. From Mahat
proceeds the cosmic Ahankara or the principle of egoism. From this egoism emanate the ten
senses and the mind on the subjective side, and the five subtle Tanmatras of sound, smell,
taste, colour and touch on the objective side. From these Tanmatras proceed the five gross
elements—earth, water, fire, air and ether.
Akasa (ether) has the property of sound which is the Vishaya or object for the ear.
Vayu (air) has the property of touch which is the Vishaya for the skin. Tejas (fire) has
the property of form or colour which is the Vishaya for the eye. Apas (water) has the
property of taste which is the Vishaya for the tongue. Prithvi (earth) has the property of
odour which is the Vishaya for the nose. Each of these elements, after the first, has also
the property of the preceding besides its own.
During dissolution of the world, the products return by a reverse movement into the
preceding stages of development, and ultimately into Prakriti. Earth merges in its cause,
water, water in fire, fire in air, air in Akasa; and Akasa in Ahankara, Ahankara in Mahat,
and Mahat in Prakriti. This is the process of involution. There is no end to Samsara or
the play of Prakriti. This cycle of evolution and involution has neither a beginning nor
an end.
The Process Of Knowledge
An object excites the senses. The mind arranges the sense-impressions into a percept.
Egoism refers it to the Self. Intellect forms the concept. It converts the percept into a
concept and presents it to the Purusha. Then there is knowledge of the object.
Before you engage in any matter, you first observe or consider, then you reflect, and
then determine: “This must be done by me;” and then you proceed to act. This
ascertainment: “Such act is to be done by me,” is the determination of the
intellect (Adhyavasaya). The intellect is an instrument which receives the ideas or images
conveyed through the organs of sense and the mind, constructs them into a conclusive idea,
and presents this idea to the Self. The function of the intellect is determination
(Nischaya).
The mind is both an organ of sensation and of action. The senses receive simple
impressions from without. The mind cooperates with the senses, and then the impressions
are perceived. The mind ponders, the intellect determines, and egoism becomes conscious.
Agency belongs to egoism—the Ahankara or the I-maker—which is itself a
product of Prakriti, but not to the Purusha or Self who is always a silent witness.
Intellect, egoism, mind and the eye see a form at once, in one instant, and come
immediately to the conclusion, say, “This is a jar.” The same three, with the
tongue, at once relish taste; with the nose smell; and so with the ear and the skin. The
function is also occasionally gradual. A man going along a road sees an object at a
distance. A doubt arises in his mind whether it is a post or a man. He then sees a bird
sitting on it. Then the doubt is removed by the reflection of the mind. The intellect
makes a determination that it is a post only. Then the egoism say: “I am certain it
is a post only.” In this way, the functions of the mind, intellect, egoism and the
eye are gradual, also. There is leisure for the eye to see, for the mind to reflect or
consider, for egoism to apply, and for the intellect to conclude. There is another
example. The ear hears the twang of a bowstring; the mind reflects that this must be for
the shooting of an arrow; egoism says: “It is aimed at me;” and the intellect
determines: “I must run at once.”
The intellect, the mind and egoism are the doorkeepers. The five senses of perception
or Jnana-Indriyas are the gates. The intellect is the instrument or organ which is the
medium between the senses and the Self.
The Intellect And Its Functions
The intellect or the Buddhi is the most important of all the products of Prakriti. The
senses present their objects to the intellect. The intellect exhibits them to the Purusha.
The intellect discriminates the difference between Purusha and Prakriti.
The intellect is the instrument or organ which is the medium between the other organs
and the Self. All ideas derived from sensation, reflection, or consciousness are deposited
in the chief or great instrument, intellect, before they can be made known to the Self for
whose use and advantage alone they have assembled. They convey impressions or ideas with
the properties or effects of pleasure, pain and indifference, accordingly as they are
influenced by the qualities of Sattva (purity), Rajas (passion) or Tamas (darkness).
Just as the headman of a village collects the taxes from the villagers and pays them to
the collector of the district, just as the local collector pays the amount to the
minister, and the minister receives it for the use of the state, so also the mind receives
the ideas from the external organs, transfers them to egoism, and egoism delivers them to
the intellect which is the general superintendent and takes charge of them for the use of
the Sovereign Self.
The intellect is the prime minister of Purusha. It brings for Purusha the fruition of
all that is to be experienced. It appears to be intelligent on account of the reflection
of Purusha which is very near to it, though, by itself, it is really non-intelligent.
The Jiva
The Jiva is the soul in union with the senses. It is limited by the body. It is endowed
with egoism. The reflection of Purusha in the Buddhi or intellect appears as the ego or
the empirical soul. It is associated with ignorance and Karma. It is subject to pleasure
and pain, action and its fruits, and rotates in the cycle of births and deaths.
The Jiva must realise the perfection of the Purusha. It must attain to the status of
the Purusha. Every Jiva has in it the higher Purusha hidden within. It must become
conscious of the real nature of the higher Purusha. Freedom or perfection is a return into
one’s true Self. It is the removal of an illusion which conceals one’s true
nature.
Release
Bondage belongs to Prakriti, but is attributed to Purusha. Purusha is eternally free.
Union of Purusha with Prakriti due to non-discrimination is bondage; the failure to
discriminate between Purusha and Prakriti is the cause of Samsara or bondage; and disunion
of Purusha and Prakriti due to discrimination is emancipation. Release is not merging in
the Absolute. but isolation from Prakriti.
The object of the Sankhya system is to effect the liberation of the Purusha or Self
from the fetters which bind it on account of its union with Prakriti. This is done by
conveying the correct knowledge of the twenty-four constituent principles of creation, and
rightly discriminating the Self from them.
In the Sankhya system, the Pramanas or means of obtaining the correct measure of
existing things, are three, viz., Pratyaksha or perception by the senses, Anumana
(inference) and Apta-Vachana (trustworthy testimony).
How Release Is Effected
When the separation of the soul from the body takes place by destruction of the effects
of virtue, vice and the rest, and Prakriti ceases to act in respect to it, then there is
the final and absolute emancipation or the final beatitude.
When the fruits of acts cease, and body—both gross and subtle—dissolves,
Nature does not exist with respect to the individual soul. The soul attains the state
called Kaivalya. It is freed from the three kinds of pain.
The Linga-Deha or subtle body which migrates from one gross body to another in
successive births, is composed of intellect, egoism, mind, the five organs of knowledge,
the five organs of action and the five Tanmatras. The impressions of actions done in
various births are imbedded in the subtle body. The conjunction of the Linga-Deha with the
gross physical body constitutes birth and separation of the Linga-Deha from the gross
physical body is death. This Linga-Deha is destroyed by the knowledge of the Purusha.
When one attains perfect Knowledge, virtue and vice become destitute of causal energy,
but the body continues for some time on account of the previous impulse, just as after the
action of the potter has stopped, the wheel continues to revolve owing to the momentum
given to it.
Release Is Nothing but Termination of the Play of Prakriti
The union of the Self with Nature or Prakriti is like the association of a lame man
with a blind man. A lame man and a blind man were deserted by their fellow-travellers in a
forest. They agreed to divide between them the duties of walking and of seeing. The lame
man mounted himself on the shoulders of the blind man and directed the blind man. The
blind man was able to pursue his route by the directions of his friend. Even so, the Self
is like the lame man. The faculty of seeing is in the Self, not that of moving. The
faculty of moving, but not of seeing, is in Prakriti. Prakriti is like the blind man. The
lame man and the blind man separated when they reached their destination. Even so,
Prakriti, having effected the liberation of the Self, ceases to act. The Self obtains
Kaivalya or the final beatitude. Consequently, their respective purposes being effected,
the connection between them terminates. The Self attains liberation by knowledge of
Prakriti.
Prakriti’s performances are solely for the benefit and enjoyment of the Self.
Prakriti takes hold of the hand of the Self and shows it the whole show of the universe,
and makes it enjoy everything which this world can give, and lastly helps it in its
liberation.
In truth, the Self is neither bound nor released, nor does it migrate, but Nature alone
in relation to various beings is bound, is released, and migrates.
As a dancing girl, having exhibited herself on the stage to the spectators, stops
dancing, so also Nature ceases to function when she has made herself manifest to the
Purusha or the Self. Nothing is more modest than Prakriti, when she becomes conscious that
she has been seen by the Purusha. She does not again expose herself to the gaze of the
Purusha.
The Yoga
Introduction
Prostrations to Sri Patanjali Maharshi, the exponent of the Raja Yoga system of
philosophy, the first systematiser of the Yoga school, whose ‘Yoga Sutras’ is
the basic text.
The word Yoga comes from the root Yuj which means to join. Yoga is
restraint of the activities of the mind, and is the union of the individual soul with the
Supreme Soul.
Hiranyagarbha is the founder of the Yoga system. The Yoga founded by Patanjali Maharshi
is a branch or supplement of the Sankhya. It has its own charm for students of a mystic
temperament and of a contemplative type. It claims greater orthodoxy than the Sankhya
proper by directly acknowledging the existence of a Supreme Being (Isvara).
The God of Patanjali is a Special Purusha or Particular Soul unaffected by afflictions,
works, fruition and vehicles. In Him is the highest limit of the seed of omniscience. He,
being unconditioned by time, is the Teacher of even the ancients. He is ever free.
The sacred syllable Om is the symbol of God. Repetition of Om and meditation on Om,
should be practised. This will remove all obstacles and will lead to the attainment of
God-realisation.
The Yoga Sutras
The ‘Yoga Sutras’ of Patanjali form the oldest textbook of the Yoga school.
It has four chapters. The first chapter, Samadhi Pada, deals with the nature and aim of
Samadhi. The second chapter, Sadhana Pada, explains the means of attaining this end.
The third chapter, Vibhuti Pada, gives a description of the supernatural powers or Siddhis
that can be achieved through the Yoga practices. The fourth chapter, Kaivalya Pada,
describes the nature of salvation.
Raja Yoga and Hatha Yoga
Patanjali’s Yoga is Ashtanga-Yoga or Yoga with eight limbs. This Yoga deals with
the discipline of the mind and its psychic powers. Hatha Yoga treats of the methods of
bodily control and regulation of breath. The culmination of Hatha Yoga is Raja Yoga. A
progressive Sadhana in Hatha Yoga leads to the accomplishment of Raja Yoga. Hatha Yoga is
a ladder to ascend to the stage or summit of Raja Yoga. When the movement of breath is
stopped by means of Kumbhaka, the mind becomes supportless. Purification of the body and
control of breath is the direct aim of Hatha Yoga. The Shat-Karmas or six acts of
purification of the body are Dhauti (cleansing of the stomach), Basti (natural form of
enema), Neti (cleansing of the nostrils), Trataka (unwinkingly gazing at some object),
Nauli (churning of the belly) and Kapalabhati (removal of the phlegm through a certain
kind of Pranayama). The body is rendered healthy, light, strong and steady by the practice
of Asanas, Bandhas and Mudras.
Yoga—A Methodical Effort to Control the Mind
Yoga is a method of strict discipline. It imposes restrictions on diet, sleep, company,
behaviour, speech and thought. It should be practised under the careful supervision of an
expert and illumined Yogi.
Yoga, is a methodical effort to control the mind and attain perfection. Yoga heightens
the power of concentration, arrests the wanderings and vagaries of the mind, and helps to
attain the superconscious state or Nirvikalpa Samadhi. The practice of Yoga removes
restlessness of body and mind. It removes the impurities of the mind also and steadies it.
The aim of Yoga is to teach the means by which the individual soul may attain complete
union with the Supreme Soul. This fusion or blending of the individual soul with the
Supreme Purusha is effected by controlling the Vrittis or thoughts of the mind. This is a
state which is as clear as crystal, since the mind is not coloured by contact with worldly
objects.
The Yoga And The Sankhya
Kapila’s system is Nirisvara Sankhya, as in it there is no Isvara or God. The
system of Patanjali is Sa-Isvara Sankhya, because there is Isvara or Special Purusha in
it, who is untouched by afflictions, works, desires, etc. Patanjali built his system on
the background of the metaphysics of the Sankhya. Patanjali accepts the twenty-five
principles of the Sankhya. He accepts the metaphysical view of the Sankhya system, but
lays great emphasis upon the practical side of self-discipline for the realisation of the
absolute unity of the Purusha or true Self.
Sankhya is a system of metaphysics. Yoga is a system of practical discipline. The
former lays emphasis upon investigation and reasoning, and the latter upon concentration
of the will-power.
The individual soul in the Yoga has greater freedom. It can attain salvation with the
help of God. The Sankhya maintains that knowledge is the means to salvation. The Yoga
holds that concentration, meditation and Samadhi will lead to Kaivalya or Independence.
The Yoga system holds that the Yogic process consists in the suppression of the
diversities of mental functions and the concentration of the mental energy on the
self-luminous Purusha.
The Eight Limbs Of Raja Yoga
Raja Yoga is known by the name Ashtanga-Yoga or the Yoga with Eight Limbs. The eight
limbs are: (i) Yama (restraint), (ii) Niyama (observances), (iii) Asana (posture), (iv)
Pranayama (control of breath), (v) Pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses), (vi) Dharana
(concentration), (vii) Dhyana (meditation), and (viii) Samadhi (superconscious state). The
first five of these form the external limbs (Bahir-anga) of Yoga. The last three form the
internal limbs (Antar-anga) of Yoga.
Yama and Niyama
The practice of Yama and Niyama constitutes ethical discipline. It prepares the Yogic
student for the real practice of Yoga. The Yogic student should practise non-violence,
truthfulness, continence, non-stealing, and non-acceptance of gifts which are conducive to
luxurious living; and practise purity, contentment, austerity, sacred study and surrender
to God. The chief of them is non-violence (Ahimsa). All other virtues are rooted in
Ahimsa. Non-violence is abstinence from malice towards all living beings—in every way
and at all times. It is not merely non-violence, but non-hatred. The Yamas or restraints
are the great universal vows (Mahavrata), not limited by caste, place or country, time or
circumstances. They must be practised by all. There are no exceptions to these principles.
Not even self-defence can justify murder for one who is practising the vow of
non-violence. He should not kill even his enemy if he is to practise Yoga rigorously.
Asana, Pranayama and Pratyahara
Asana is steady, comfortable posture. Asana or posture is a physical help to
concentration. When one obtains mastery over the Asana, he is free from the disturbance of
the pairs of opposites. Pranayama or regulation of breath leads to tranquillity and
steadiness of mind, and good health. Pratyahara is introversion. It is withdrawal of the
senses from their objects. Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama and Pratyahara are accessories
to Yoga.
Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi
Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi are the three consecutive stages of the same process of
mental concentration and are thus parts of an organic whole. Dharana is the effort to fix
the mind steadily upon an object. Dhyana is continuous and unbroken fixity of the mind
upon the object. Samadhi is fixity of the mind upon the object with such intensity of
concentration as to become the object itself. The mind is wholly merged in and identified
with the object upon which it is fixed.
Samyama or concentration, meditation and Samadhi are one and the same, that gives a
knowledge of supersensual objects. Siddhis are by-products of concentration. The
supernatural powers are really obstacles to Samadhi or freedom.
Yoga Samadhi And Its Characteristics
Dhyana or meditation culminates in Samadhi. The object of meditation is Samadhi.
Samadhi is the goal of Yoga discipline. Body and mind become dead, as it were, to all
external impressions. The connection with the outer world is broken. In Samadhi, the Yogi
enters into Supreme Silence which is untouched by the ceaseless noises of the outer world.
The mind ceases its functioning. The senses are absorbed in the mind. When all the
modifications of the mind are controlled, the Seer, the Purusha, rests in his own Self.
Patanjali speaks of this in his Yoga Sutras as Svarupa-Avasthanam (establishment in
one’s true Self).
There are kinds or degrees of concentration or Samadhi, viz., Samprajnata or conscious
and Asamprajnata or superconscious. In Samprajnata Samadhi, there are definite objects of
concentration for resting. The mind remains conscious of the object. Savitarka (with
deliberation), Nirvitarka (without deliberation), Savichara (with reflection), Nirvichara
(without reflection), Sananda (with joy), and Sasmita (with the sense of personality) are
forms of Samprajnata Samadhi. In Samprajnata Samadhi, there is a clear consciousness of
the object meditated upon, as distinct from the subject. In Asamprajnata Samadhi, this
distinction vanishes, it being transcended.
Conditions For Success In Raja Yoga
The Importance of Yama and Niyama
Aspirants who desire to attain God-realisation should practise all the eight limbs of
Yoga. On the destruction of the impurities through the practice of the eight limbs—or
accessories—of Yoga, arises the light of wisdom leading to the discriminative
knowledge.
For the attainment of Samadhi or union with the Divine, the practice of Yama and Niyama
is an indispensable necessity. The Yogic student should practise Yama and observe Niyama
side by side. It is not possible to attain perfection in meditation and Samadhi without
the observance of the practice of Yama and Niyama. You cannot have concentration of mind
without removing falsehood, deceit, cruelty, lust, etc., within. Without concentration of
mind, meditation and Samadhi cannot be attained.
The Five Mental Planes According To The School Of Patanjali
Kshipta, Mudha, Vikshipta, Ekagra and Niruddha are the five mental planes according to
the Raja Yoga school of Patanjali. The Kshipta plane is that wherein the mind wanders
amongst various sensual objects. The mind is filled with Rajas. The Mudha plane is that
wherein the mind is in a state of sleep and impotence on account of Tamas. The Vikshipta
plane is that wherein Sattva preponderates, and the mind oscillates between meditation and
objectivity. The rays of the mind are slowly collected and gathered. When Sattva
increases, you will have cheerfulness of mind, one-pointedness of mind, conquest of the
senses and fitness for the realisation of the Atman. The Ekagra plane is that wherein the
mind is one-pointed. There is deep meditation. Sattva is free from Rajas and Tamas. The
Niruddha plane is that wherein the mind is under perfect control. All the Vrittis of the
mind are annihilated.
A Vritti is a whirlpool or thought-wave in the mind-lake. Every Vritti or mental
modification leaves behind a Samskara or impression or latent tendency. This Samskara may
manifest itself as a conscious state when the occasion arises. Similar Vrittis strengthen
similar dispositions. When all the Vrittis are arrested, the mind is in a balanced state
(Samapatti).
Disease, langour, doubt, carelessness, laziness, worldliness, erroneous perception,
failure to attain concentration and instability in it when attained, are the main
obstacles to concentration.
The Five Klesas And Their Removal
According to Patanjali, Avidya (ignorance), Asmita (egoism), Raga-Dvesha (desire and
aversion, or likes and dislikes) and Abhinivesa (clinging to mundane life) are the five
great Klesas or afflictions that assail the mind. These are alleviated by means of
continued Yogic practice, but not uprooted totally. They remain hidden in the form of
seed. They sprout out again the moment they find an opportunity and favourable
surroundings. But Asamprajnata Samadhi (Absolute-Experience) destroys even the seeds of
these evils.
Avidya is the main cause of all our troubles. Egoism is the immediate result of Avidya.
It fills us with desires and aversions, and veils the spiritual vision. The practice of
Yoga-Samadhi uproots Avidya.
Practice of Kriya-Yoga
Kriya-Yoga purifies the mind, attenuates or thins out the five afflictions, and leads
to Samadhi. Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (studying and understanding of scriptures) and
Isvarapranidhana (worship of God and surrendering the fruit to God) constitute Kriya-Yoga.
Cultivation of friendliness (Maitri) towards equals, compassion (Karuna) towards
interiors, cheerfulness (Mudita) towards superiors and indifference (Upeksha) towards
wicked people (or with regard to things pleasant and painful, good and bad) produce
tranquillity of mind (Chitta-Prasada).
One can attain Samadhi through devotion to God. Devotion to God gives freedom. By
Isvarapranidhana, the Yogic student obtains the grace of God.
Abhyasa and Vairagya
Abhyasa (practice) and Vairagya (dispassion, non-attachment) help in steadying and
controlling the mind. The mind should be withdrawn again and again and brought back to the
centre, whenever it goes out towards sensual objects. This is Abhyasa Yoga. Practice
becomes fixed and steady, when pursued for a long time without any break and with perfect
devotion.
The mind is a bundle of Trishnas (cravings). Practice of Vairagya will destroy all
Trishnas. Vairagya turns the mind away from the objects. It does not allow the mind to go
outwards (Bahirmukha action of the mind), but promotes its Antarmukha (inward-going)
action.
The State Of Kaivalya Or Absolute Independence
The goal of life is the absolute separation of Purusha from Prakriti. Freedom in Yoga,
is Kaivalya or absolute independence. The soul is freed from the fetters of Prakriti. The
Purusha is in its true form or Svarupa. When the soul realises that it is absolutely
independent, and that it does not depend on anything else in this world, Kaivalya or
Isolation comes in. The soul has removed the Avidya through discriminative knowledge
(Viveka-khyati). The five Klesas or afflictions are burnt by the fire of Knowledge. The
Self is not touched by the conditions of the Chitta. The Gunas retire to rest and the Self
abides in its own divine essence. Even if one becomes a Mukta (liberated Soul), Prakriti
and its modifications exist for others. This, the Yoga system holds, in agreement with the
Sankhya.
The Purva Mimamsa
Introduction
Adorations to Sri Jaimini, the founder of the Purva Mimamsa system, the disciple of Sri
Vyasa Bhagavan!
Purva Mimamsa or Karma-Mimamsa is an enquiry into the earlier portion of the Vedas, an
enquiry into the ritual of the Vedas or that portion of the Vedas which is concerned with
the Mantras and the Brahmanas only. The Purva Mimamsa is so called, because it is earlier
(Purva) than the Uttara Mimamsa, not so much in the chronological as in the logical sense.
Mimamsa—A System of Vedic Interpretation
Mimamsa is not a branch of any philosophical system. It is rather a system of Vedic
interpretation. Its philosophical discussions amount to a kind of critical commentary on
the Brahmana or ritual portion of the Veda. It interprets the Vedas in the literal sense.
The central problem of Purva Mimamsa is ritual. Jaimini has systematised the rules of
Mimamsa and established their validity in his work. The rules of Mimamsa are very
important for the interpretation of the Hindu Law.
The Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini give a detailed description of the different sacrifices
and their purposes, the doctrine of Apurva, and also some philosophical propositions.
There are twelve chapters.
Sabara is the author of the chief commentary or Bhashya on the work of Jaimini.
Kumarila, the Guru of Bhavabhuti, commented on the Sutra and the Bhashya. He proved the
eternal character of the Vedas and the efficiency of Vedic ceremonials. Prabhakara was a
pupil of Kumarila. He wrote a commentary on the Bhashya of Sabara.
Jaimini accepts the three Pramanas of perception (Pratyaksha), inference (Anumana) and
authoritative testimony (Sabda or Veda). Jaimini holds that there is a perpetual
connection between a word and its sense and that sound is eternal.
The Eternal, Self-Existent Veda
Jaimini was an opponent of rationalism and theism. The Veda was practically the only
God for him. The eternal Veda needs no other basis to rest on. There is no divine
revealer. The Veda itself is authoritative. It is the only source of our knowledge of
Dharma. God was not necessary for him and his system. He said that Veda was itself the
authority. His first aphorism ‘Athato Dharma-Jijnasa’ states the whole
aim and object of his system, viz., a desire to know Dharma or duty, which consists in the
performance of the rites and sacrifices prescribed by the Veda. Dharma itself bestows the
rewards. The aim of Purva Mimamsa is to investigate into the nature of Dharma.
The Purva Mimamsa has a number of deities. The offerings may be made to them. The
practice of Vedic Dharma is not in need of any Supreme Being or God. Vedic religion does
not require the assistance of God. The eternal self-existent Veda serves all the purposes
of Jaimini and the Purva Mimamsakas. Jaimini does not so much deny God as ignore Him.
Practice Of Vedic Dharma—The Key To Happiness
Dharma is enjoined by the Vedas, known as the Sruti. Its practice leads to happiness.
If the Smriti does not agree with the Sruti, the former is to be ignored. The practice by
virtuous men or custom comes next to the Smriti. A Hindu should lead his life in
accordance with the rules of the Vedas. A Hindu must perform Nitya Karmas like Sandhya,
etc., and Naimittika Karmas during proper occasions, to get salvation. These are
unconditional duties. If he fails to do these, he incurs the sin of omission (Pratyavaya
Dosha). He performs Kamya Karmas to attain special ends. If he avoids prohibited
actions (Nishiddha Karmas), he will avoid hell. If he performs the unconditional duties,
he will attain salvation.
Some later Mimamsakas maintain that all works ought to be performed as an offering to
God or the Supreme Being. Then they become the cause or means of emancipation.
If works or sacrifices are done in a mechanical way without feeling, Sraddha (faith)
and devotion, they cannot help one to attain salvation. One may perform any number of
sacrifices; and yet, there may not be any change in the heart, if they are performed
without the right spirit or right mental attitude and right will. What is really wanted is
not the ceremonial sacrifice, but the sacrifice of selfishness, egoism and Raga-Dvesha
(likes and dislikes).
The Doctrine Of Apurva
The fruits or rewards of sacrifices are not dispensed by any beneficient God. Apurva
bestows the reward on the sacrificer. Apurva is the link or necessary
connection between work and its fruit or result. Apurva is Adrishta. It is a positive,
unseen force created by an act, which leads to the attainment of the fruit of the action.
This is the view of Jaimini.
Others thinkers criticised severely that the unconscious or non-intelligent Apurva
could not bestow the rewards. The Mimamsa system could not satisfy the intelligent,
thoughtful men. Hence, the later Mimamsakas slowly introduced God. They declared that if
sacrifices were performed in honour of the Supreme Being, it would lead to the achievement
of the Supreme Good. Apurva cannot act, unless it is moved by God or the Supreme Being. He
who makes the Apurva function is God.
The Self And Its Characteristics
The self is distinct from the body, the senses and the intellect. The self is the
experiencer or enjoyer. The body is the abode of experiences. The senses are the
instruments of experience. The self perceives when it is in union with the mind. It
experiences internally pleasure and pain; and externally, objects such as trees, rivers,
plants, etc.
The self is not the senses, because it persists even when the senses are injured or
destroyed. The body is made up of matter. The perceiver is distinct from the body. The
self directs the body. The body is a servant of the self. There is some being which
synthesises the various sense-data. That being or entity is the self. The self is
all-pervading and imperishable. Selves are countless.
The real self survives the annihilation of the body. The performer of a sacrifice goes
to heaven. Jaimini does not believe in Moksha. He believes in the existence of Svarga
(heaven) attainable through Karma or sacrifice. The Veda promises rewards to the
sacrificer to be enjoyed in another world.
The Later Mimamsakas
Prabhakara and Kumarila
Jaimini showed the way to attain happiness in Svarga or heaven, but he did not tell
anything about the problem of the final emancipation. The later writers like Prabhakara
and Kumarila, however, could not avoid this problem of final salvation as it engaged the
attention of the thinkers of other schools. Prabhakara says that the absolute cessation of
the body caused by the total disappearance of Dharma and Adharma, whose operation is the
cause of rebirth, is ultimate release or liberation. Man abandons prohibited acts, and the
deeds which lead to happiness in heaven. He does the necessary expiations for exhausting
the previously accumulated Karmas. He practises self-restraint and disciplines himself. He
develops virtuous qualities. He frees himself from rebirths by a true knowledge of the
self. One cannot attain release by mere knowledge. Exhaustion of Karmas only can
bring about release. Knowledge prevents further accumulation of virtue and vice. Karma by
itself cannot lead to the attainment of the final emancipation. Raga-Dvesha (likes and
dislikes), which lead to the performance of actions, must be destroyed if one wants to
attain Moksha. Moksha is the cessation of pleasure and pain. It is not a state of bliss,
as the attributeless soul cannot have even bliss. It is simply the natural form of the
soul.
The view of Kumarila comes very near to the view of Advaita Vedantins. Kumarila
maintains that the Veda is composed by God and is Brahman in the form of sounds. Moksha is
a positive state for him. It is the realisation of the Atman. He is of opinion that
knowledge is not sufficient for salvation. He thinks that final emancipation can be
attained through Karma (action) combined with Jnana (knowledge).
Jaimini’s Philosophy In A Nut-Shell
According to Jaimini, performance of the actions that are enjoined in the Vedas is the
Sadhana or means for attaining heaven. Karma-Kanda is the chief section of the Vedas. The
cause of bondage is the performance of Nishiddha Karmas or prohibited actions. The self is
Jada-Chetana, a combination of insentiency and intelligence. Souls are countless. The soul
is doer and enjoyer. It is all-pervading. Jaimini does not believe in the creation of the
world. He believes in grades of happiness in heaven and in Sadachara or right conduct,
viz., Satyam Vada (Speak the truth), Dharmam Chara (Perform duty).
Criticism Of Jaimini’s Philosophy
The Purva Mimamsa system of philosophy is said to be unsatisfactory and incomplete,
inasmuch as it does not deal with the problems of the Ultimate Reality and its relation to
soul and matter. There is no philosophical view of the world. The central feature is the
performance of the sacrifices. This is the most essential or fundamental thing.
“Perform sacrifices and enjoy in Heaven”—this is the sum and substance of
Jaimini’s teaching. This is his Moksha or the final goal. This cannot give
satisfaction to the thinkers who know that the enjoyment in heaven is transitory,
imperfect, sensual and worldly.
The Vedanta Philosophy
Introduction
Prostrations and adorations to Sri Vyasa, the founder of Uttara Mimamsa or the Vedanta
system of philosophy, Avatara of Lord Vishnu, son of Sri Parasara Rishi.
Uttara Mimamsa or the Vedanta philosophy of Vyasa or Badarayana is placed as the last
of the six orthodox systems, but, really, it ought to stand first.
The Uttara Mimamsa conforms closely to the doctrines propounded in the Upanishads. The
term Vedanta means literally the end or essence of the Veda. It contains the
doctrines set forth in the closing chapters of the Vedas. The closing chapters of the
Vedas are the Upanishads. The Upanishads really form the essence of the Vedas.
The Brahma Sutras Of Bhagavan Vyasa
Sri Vyasa wrote the Brahma Sutras or the Vedanta Sutras which explain the doctrine of
Brahman. Brahma Sutras are also known by the name Sariraka Sutras, because they deal with
the embodiment of the Supreme Nirguna Brahman. ‘Brahma Sutras’ is one of the
three books of the Prasthana Traya, the three authoritative books on Hinduism, the other
two being the Upanishads and the Bhagavad-Gita. Sri Vyasa has systematised the principles
of Vedanta and removed the apparent contradictions in the doctrines. The Brahma Sutras are
555 in number. Sri Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, Vallabha, Bhaskara, Yadavaprakasa,
Kesava, Nilakantha, Baladeva and Vijnana Bhikshu are the chief commentators on the Brahma
Sutras. Each has commented in his own way and built his own philosophy. The most reputed
teacher of this school of philosophy was Sri Sankaracharya.
Sri Vyasa has criticised the doctrines of the Vaiseshika system and the Sankhya system.
The several schools of Buddhism and the Bhagavata doctrines are also discussed.
There are four chapters, viz., Samanvaya, Avirodha, Sadhana and Phala. In the first
chapter, an account of the nature of Brahman and of its relation to the world and the
individual soul, is given. In the second chapter, the rival theories, viz., Sankhya, Yoga,
Vaiseshika, etc., are criticised. Suitable answers are given to the objections levelled
against this view. In the third chapter, the means of attaining Brahma-Vidya are treated.
In the fourth chapter, there is a description of the fruits of Brahma-Vidya. There is also
a description of how the individual soul reaches Brahman through the Devayana or the path
of the Devas, whence there is no return. The characteristics of the Jivanmukta or
liberated soul are also discussed in this chapter. Each chapter has four parts (Padas).
The Sutras in each part form Adhikaranas or topics.
The first five Sutras of the first chapter are very important. The first Sutra is: “Athato
Brahma-Jijnasa—Now, therefore, the enquiry into Brahman.” The first aphorism
states the object of the whole system in one word, viz., Brahma-Jijnasa, the desire of
knowing Brahman. The second Sutra is: “Janmadyasya Yatah—Brahman is the
Supreme Being from whom proceeds the origin, sustenance and dissolution of the
world.” The third Sutra is: “Sastra-Yonitvat—The scriptures alone
are the means of right knowledge. The omniscience of Brahman follows from Its being the
source of the scriptures.” The fourth Sutra is: “Tat Tu Samanvayat—That
Brahman is to be known only from the scriptures and not independently by any other means
is established, because it is the main purport of all Vedanta texts.” The fifth Sutra
is: “Ikshater Na Asabdam—On account of ‘thinking,’ Prakriti or
Pradhana not being the first cause.” Pradhana is not based on the scriptures. The
last Sutra of the fourth chapter is: “Anavrittih Sabdat, Anavrittih Sabdat—There
is no return for the released souls, on account of scriptural declaration to that
effect.”
Brahman, Maya And Jiva
Brahman
Brahman, the Absolute, after creating the elements, enters them. It is the Golden
Person in the sun. It is the Light of the soul. It is ever pure. It is Sat-Chit-Ananda,
one without a second. It is Bhuma (infinite, unconditioned). It dwells in the heart of
man. It is the source of everything.
Brahman is the material cause, as well as the instrumental cause, of the universe.
Brahman and the universe are not different, just as the jar is not different from clay.
Brahman develops Itself into the universe for Its own Lila or sporting, without undergoing
the least change, and without ceasing to be Itself.
Brahman is without parts, without qualities, without action and emotion, beginningless,
endless and immutable. It has no consciousness, such as is denoted by ‘I’ and
‘Thou’. It is the only Reality. Brahman is to the external world what yarn is to
cloth, what earth is to jar and what gold is to a ring.
Brahman is Paramarthika Satta (Absolute Reality). The world is Vyavaharika Satta
(relative reality). The dream object is Pratibhasika Satta (apparent reality).
Maya
Maya is the Sakti (power) of God. It is the Karana Sarira (causal body) of God. It
hides the real and makes the unreal appear as real. It is neither Sat nor Asat nor
Sat-Asat. It is Anirvachaniya (indescribable). Maya has two powers, viz., the power of
veiling or Avarana Sakti and the power of projecting or Vikshepa Sakti. Man has forgotten
his essential divine nature on account of the veiling power of Maya. This universe is
projected owing to the Vikshepa Sakti of Maya.
Jiva
The Jiva or the individual soul is enclosed within five sheaths (Kosas), which are like
the sheaths of an onion. The five sheaths are food-sheath (Annamaya Kosa), vital sheath
(Pranamaya Kosa), mental sheath (Manomaya Kosa), intellectual sheath (Vijnanamaya Kosa)
and the bliss-sheath (Anandamaya Kosa). The first sheath constitutes the physical body.
The next three sheaths form the subtle body. The last sheath forms the causal body. The
individual soul should transcend all its sheaths through meditation and become one with
the Supreme Soul which is beyond the five Kosas. Then only it will attain liberation or
freedom.
There are three states of consciousness for the individual soul, viz., the waking
state, the dreaming state and the deep sleep state. Turiya or the fourth state is the
superconscious state. Turiya is Brahman. Turiya is the silent witness of the three states.
The individual should transcend the first three states and identify himself with the
Turiya or the fourth state. Then only he can attain oneness with the Supreme Soul.
Avidya is the causal body of Jiva or the individual soul. The Jiva identifies itself
with the body, mind and the senses on account of Avidya. It has the erroneous notion that
the body is the soul, just as one has the wrong notion that the rope is the serpent, in
twilight. The moment the individual soul is freed from the self-imposed ignorance by a
proper understanding of the Truth through the Vedanta philosophy, Vichara (enquiry),
reflection and meditation on the Supreme Brahman, all the illusion disappears. The
identity of the Jivatman and of the entire phenomenal world with the Supreme Soul or
Brahman is re-established. The Jiva attains immortality and eternal bliss. It merges
itself in Brahman or the Ocean of Bliss.
Badarayana believes in Jivanmukti or Liberation While Living.
Celebrated Vedantic Formulae
The following are the celebrated formulae of Vedanta:—
Ekam Eva Advitiyam—The Reality is One alone without a second.
Brahma Satyam Jagan Mithya, Jivo Brahmaiva Na Aparah—Brahman only exists
truly, the world is false, the individual soul is Brahman only and no other.
Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma—All this is, indeed, Brahman.
Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahma—Brahman is Truth, Knowledge and Infinity.
Brahmavid Brahmaiva Bhavati—The knower of Brahman becomes Brahman.
Santam, Sivam, Advaitam—Brahman is Peace, Auspiciousness and Non-duality.
Ayam Atma Santah—This Atman is Silence.
Asango Ayam Purusha—This Purusha is unattached.
Santam, Ajaram, Amritam, Abhayam, Param—This Brahman is Peace, without old
age, Immortal, fearless and Supreme.
May you all understand the truths of Vedanta philosophy. May you all realise the bliss
of oneness. May you all become Jivanmuktas while living.
CHAPTER 12
HINDU PHILOSOPHY—II
(THE SCHOOLS OF VEDANTA)
Introduction
The Sutras or aphorisms of Vyasa are the basis of the Vedanta philosophy. These
Sutras have been variously explained by different commentators. From these interpretations
have arisen several schools of philosophy, viz., Kevala Advaita philosophy of Sri
Sankaracharya the philosophy of Qualified Monism or Visishtadvaita of Sri Ramanujacharya,
the Dvaita philosophy of Sri Madhvacharya, the Bhedabheda philosophy of Sri
Nimbarkacharya, the Suddha Advaita philosophy of Sri Vallabhacharya, the Achintya
Bhedabheda philosophy of Sri Chaitanya and the Siddhanta philosophy of Sri Meykandar.
Each system of philosophy treats of three main problems, viz., God, world and soul. The
several schools of philosophy are only different attempts at discovering the Truth.
The different Acharyas, belonging to distinctly different cults, became founders of
sects and great system-builders. The followers of these schools sought to prove their
orthodoxy by interpreting the Vedanta Sutras in accordance with their own tenets, showing
their claim to be based on, and regularly evolved from, ancient tradition.
Sruti—The Common Basis Of All Schools
The Vedanta schools base their doctrines on the Upanishads. The Upanishads, the Vedanta
Sutras and the Bhagavad-Gita are regarded as the authoritative scriptures. They are called
Prasthana-Traya Granthas. Different commentators of the Vedanta Sutras have formed
different views on the true nature of Brahman, but they all base their theories on the
supreme authority of the Sruti. To reject any one of these views is to reject the Sruti
itself.
The Three Main Schools Of Metaphysical Thought
Dvaita, Visishtadvaita and Advaita
Sri Sankara, Sri Ramanuja and Sri Madhva are the most illustrious commentators on the
Vedanta Sutras. These commentators have tried to establish theories of their own, such as
Advaita-Vada (unqualified non-dualism or uncompromising or rigorous monism),
Visishtadvaita-Vada (differentiated or qualified monism) and Dvaita-Vada (strict or
rigorous dualism). Sankaracharya had in view, while preparing his commentary, chiefly the
purpose of combating the baneful effects which blind ritualism had brought to bear upon
Hinduism.
Dualism (Dvaita), Qualified Monism (Visishtadvaita) and Monism (Advaita) are the three
main schools of metaphysical thought. They are all stages on the way to the Ultimate
Truth, viz., Para-Brahman. They are rungs on the ladder of Yoga. They are not at all
contradictory. On the contrary, they are complimentary to one another. These stages are
harmoniously arranged in a graded series of spiritual experiences. Dualism, Qualified
Monism, Pure Monism—all these culminate eventually in the Advaita Vedantic
realisation of the Absolute or the transcendental Trigunatita Ananta Brahman.
Madhva said: “Man is the servant of God,” and established his Dvaita
philosophy. Ramanuja said: “Man is a ray or spark of God,” and established his
Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: “Man is identical with Brahman or the
Eternal Soul,” and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.
A Dvaitin wants to serve the Lord as a servant. He wishes to play with the Lord. He
wishes to taste the sugar-candy. A Visishtadvaitin wants to become like Lord Narayana and
enjoy the divine. He does not wish to merge himself or become identical with the Lord. He
wishes to remain as a spark. A Jnani merges himself in Brahman. He wishes to become
identical with Brahman. He wants to become the sugar-candy itself.
People have different temperaments and different capacities. So, different schools of
philosophy are also necessary. The highest rung is Advaita philosophy. A dualist or
qualified monist eventually becomes a Kevala Advaitin.
Different Conceptions Of Brahman Only Different Approaches To The
Reality
Nimbarkacharya reconciles all the different views regarding the Lord taken up by
Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva and others, and proves that their views are all true with
reference to the particular aspect of Brahman dealt with by them, each in his own way.
Sankara has taken Reality in Its transcendental aspect, while Ramanuja has taken It in Its
immanent aspect, principally; but, Nimbarka has adjusted different views taken by the
different commentators.
Sri Sankaracharya, Sri Ramanujacharya, Sri Madhvacharya, Sri Vallabhacharya and Sri
Nimbarkacharya—all were great souls. We cannot say that Sri Sankara was
greater than Sri Ramanuja, or Sri Vallabha was greater than Nimbarka, etc. All were
Avatara Purushas. Each one incarnated himself on this earth to complete a definite
mission, to preach and propagate certain doctrines which were necessary to help the growth
of a certain type of people, who flourished at a certain period, who were in a certain
stage of evolution. All schools of philosophy are necessary. Each philosophy is best
suited to a certain type of people. The different conceptions of Brahman are but different
approaches to the Reality. It is extremely difficult, rather impossible, for the finite
soul to get—all at once—a clear conception of the Illimitable or Infinite Soul,
and more so, to express it in adequate terms. All cannot grasp the highest Kevala Advaita
philosophy of Sri Sankara all at once. The mind has to be disciplined properly before it
is rendered as a fit instrument to grasp the tenets of Sri Sankara’s Advaita Vedanta.
Salutations and adorations to all Acharyas! Glory to the Acharyas! May their blessings
be upon us all.
The Advaita Philosophy Of Sri Sankara
Introduction
The first systematic exponent of the Advaita is Gaudapada, who is the Parama-Guru
(preceptor’s preceptor) of Sri Sankara. Govinda was the disciple of Gaudapada. He
became the preceptor of Sankara. Gaudapada has given the central teaching of Advaita
Vedanta in his celebrated Mandukya Karikas. But it was Sankara who brought forth the final
beautiful form of Advaita philosophy, and gave perfection and finishing touch to it.
Carefully go through Sri Sankara’s commentaries on the principal Upanishads, the
Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad-Gita. You will clearly understand his Advaita philosophy.
The commentary on the Vedanta Sutras by Sankara is known as Sariraka Bhashya.
The teachings of Sankara can be summed up in half a verse: “Brahma Satyam Jagan
Mithya Jivo Brahmaiva Na Aparah—Brahman (the Absolute) is alone real; this world
is unreal; and the Jiva or the individual soul is non-different from Brahman.” This
is the quintessence of his philosophy.
The Advaita taught by Sri Sankara is a rigorous, absolute one. According to Sri
Sankara, whatever is, is Brahman. Brahman Itself is absolutely homogeneous. All difference
and plurality are illusory.
Brahman—The One Without A Second
The Atman is self-evident (Svatah-siddha). It is not established by extraneous proofs.
It is not possible to deny the Atman, because It is the very essence of the one who denies
It. The Atman is the basis of all kinds of knowledge, presuppositions and proofs. Self is
within, Self is without; Self is before, Self is behind; Self is on the right, Self is on
the left; Self is above and Self is below.
Brahman is not an object, as It is Adrisya, beyond the reach of the eyes. Hence the
Upanishads declare: “Neti Neti—not this, not this, not that.” This
does not mean that Brahman is a negative concept, or a metaphysical abstraction, or a
nonentity, or a void. It is not another. It is all-full, infinite, changeless,
self-existent, self-delight, self-knowledge and self-bliss. It is Svarupa, essence. It is
the essence of the knower. It is the Seer (Drashta), Transcendent (Turiya) and Silent
Witness (Sakshi).
Sankara’s Supreme Brahman is impersonal, Nirguna (without Gunas or attributes),
Nirakara (formless), Nirvisesha (without special characteristics), immutable, eternal and
Akarta (non-agent). It is above all needs and desires. It is always the Witnessing
Subject. It can never become an object as It is beyond the reach of the senses. Brahman is
non-dual, one without a second. It has no other beside It. It is destitute of difference,
either external or internal. Brahman cannot be described, because description implies
distinction. Brahman cannot be distinguished from any other than It. In Brahman, there is
not the distinction of substance and attribute. Sat-Chit-Ananda constitute the very
essence or Svarupa of Brahman, and not just Its attributes.
The Nirguna Brahman of Sankara is impersonal. It becomes a personal God or Saguna
Brahman only through Its association with Maya.
Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman are not two different Brahmans. Nirguna Brahman is
not the contrast, antithesis or opposite of Saguna Brahman. The same Nirguna Brahman
appears as Saguna Brahman for the pious worship of devotees. It is the same Truth from two
different points of view. Nirguna Brahman is the higher Brahman, the Brahman from the
transcendental viewpoint (Paramarthika); Saguna Brahman is the lower Brahman, the Brahman
from the relative viewpoint (Vyavaharika).
The World—A Relative Reality
The world is not an illusion according to Sankara. The world is relatively real
(Vyavaharika Satta), while Brahman is absolutely real (Paramarthika Satta). The world is
the product of Maya or Avidya. The unchanging Brahman appears as the changing world
through Maya. Maya is a mysterious indescribable power of the Lord which hides the real
and manifests itself as the unreal: Maya is not real, because it vanishes when you attain
knowledge of the Eternal. It is not unreal also, because it exists till knowledge dawns in
you. The superimposition of the world on Brahman is due to Avidya or ignorance.
Nature Of The Jiva And The Means To Moksha
To Sankara, the Jiva or the individual soul is only relatively real. Its individuality
lasts only so long as it is subject to unreal Upadhis or limiting conditions due to
Avidya. The Jiva identifies itself with the body, mind and the senses, when it is deluded
by Avidya or ignorance. It thinks, it acts and enjoys, on account of Avidya. In reality it
is not different from Brahman or the Absolute. The Upanishads declare emphatically: “Tat
Tvam Asi—That Thou Art.” Just as the bubble becomes one with the ocean when
it bursts, just as the pot-ether becomes one with the universal ether when the pot is
broken, so also the Jiva or the empirical self becomes one with Brahman when it gets
knowledge of Brahman. When knowledge dawns in it through annihilation of Avidya, it is
freed from its individuality and finitude and realises its essential Satchidananda nature.
It merges itself in the ocean of bliss. The river of life joins the ocean of existence.
This is the Truth.
The release from Samsara means, according to Sankara, the absolute merging of the
individual soul in Brahman due to dismissal of the erroneous notion that the soul is
distinct from Brahman. According to Sankara, Karma and Bhakti are means to Jnana which is
Moksha.
Vivarta Vada Or The Theory Of Superimposition
To Sankara the world is only relatively real (Vyavaharika Satta). He advocated
Vivarta-Vada or the theory of appearance or superimposition (Adhyasa). Just as snake is
superimposed on the rope in twilight, this world and body are superimposed on Brahman or
the Supreme Self. If you get knowledge of the rope, the illusion of snake in the rope will
vanish. Even so, if you get knowledge of Brahman or the Imperishable, the illusion of body
and world will disappear. In Vivarta-Vada, the cause produces the effect without
undergoing any change in itself. Snake is only an appearance on the rope. The rope has not
transformed itself into a snake, like milk into curd. Brahman is immutable and eternal.
Therefore, It cannot change Itself into the world. Brahman becomes the cause of the world
through Maya, which is Its inscrutable mysterious power or Sakti.
When you come to know that it is only a rope, your fear disappears. You do not run away
from it. Even so, when you realise the eternal immutable Brahman, you are not affected by
the phenomena or the names and forms of this world. When Avidya or the veil of ignorance
is destroyed through knowledge of the Eternal, when Mithya Jnana or false knowledge is
removed by real knowledge of the Imperishable or the living Reality, you shine in your
true, pristine, divine splendour and glory.
The Advaita—A Philosophy Without A Parallel
The Advaita philosophy of Sri Sankaracharya is lofty, sublime and unique. It is a
system of bold philosophy and logical subtlety. It is highly interesting, inspiring and
elevating. No other philosophy can stand before it in boldness, depth and subtle thinking.
Sankara’s philosophy is complete and perfect.
Sri Sankara was a mighty, marvellous genius. He was a master of logic. He was a
profound thinker of the first rank. He was a sage of the highest realisation. He was an
Avatara of Lord Siva. His philosophy has brought solace, peace and illumination to
countless persons in the East and the West. The Western thinkers bow their heads at the
lotus-feet of Sri Sankara. His philosophy has soothed the sorrows and afflictions of the
most forlorn persons, and brought hope, joy, wisdom, perfection, freedom and calmness to
many. His system of philosophy commands the admiration of the whole world.
The Visishtadvaita Philosophy Of Sri Ramanuja
Introduction
The Visishtadvaita is so called because it inculcates the Advaita or oneness of God,
with Visesha or attributes. It is, therefore, qualified monism. God alone exists. All else
that is seen are His manifestations or attributes. God or Lord Narayana of Sri Ramanuja is
a complex organic whole—Visishta—though it is one. Hence the name
Visishtadvaita.
According to Sri Sankara, all qualities or manifestations are unreal and temporary.
They are a result of Avidya or ignorance. According to Sri Ramanuja, the attributes are
real and permanent. But, they are subject to the control of the one Brahman. God can be
one despite the existence of attributes, because they cannot exist alone; they are not
independent entities. They are Prakaras or the modes, Sesha or the accessories, and Niyama
or the controlled aspects, of the one Brahman.
Ramanuja’s celebrated system of philosophy known as Visishtadvaita or qualified
monism is Advaita or non-dualism with a qualification or Visesha. It admits plurality. Sri
Ramanuja’s Brahman or Lord Narayana subsists in a plurality of forms as souls (Chit)
and matter (Achit). Hence it is called Visishtadvaita or qualified non-dualism.
Visishtadvaita philosophy is Vaishnavism. The Sampradaya of Ramanuja’s cult or creed
is known as Sri Sampradaya. His followers are Vaishnavas. Ramanuja systematised the
philosophy of Vaishnavism. Ramanuja’s religion is called Sri Vaishnavism because
‘Sri’ or the Goddess Lakshmi is made to have an important function to perform in
the salvation of the soul.
Sri Sankara’s philosophy is too high, subtle and abstruse for the vast majority of
persons. But Sri Ramanuja’s philosophy is suitable for those in whom the devotional
element preponderates. In Sri Ramanuja’s system of philosophy, the Lord (Narayana)
has two inseparable Prakaras or modes, viz., the world and the souls. These are related to
Him as the body is related to the soul. They have no existence apart from Him. They inhere
in Him as attributes in a substance. Matter and souls constitute the body of the Lord. The
Lord is their indweller. He is the controlling Reality. Matter and souls are the
subordinate elements. They are termed Viseshanas, attributes. God is the Viseshya or that
which is qualified.
The Visishtadvaita System—The Story Of Its Evolution
The Visishtadvaita system is an ancient one. It was originally expounded by Bodhayana
in his Vritti, written about 400 B.C. It is the same as that is expounded by Ramanuja.
Ramanuja followed Bodhayana in his interpretation of the Brahma Sutras.
The Bhakti school worships a personal God. The devotees develop devotion to Vasudeva or
Narayana. Those who worship the personal God are called Bhagavatas. They have their own
scriptures, called the Pancharatra Agamas which are regarded by them as equal to the
Upanishads. The Bhakti movement was further strengthened in South India by the work of the
twelve Alvar saints. The hymns composed by the Alvar saints were called collectively by
the name Nalayira-Prabandham, a series of four thousand poems.
Afterwards came the Vaishnava Acharyas—Natha Muni, Yamunacharya and
Ramanujacharya. They were great scholars. They gave a philosophical basis and colouring to
their beliefs and practices. The Alvars solely relied on Bhakti, but these Acharyas
combined Jnana and Karma with it for the realisation of God. They regarded Jnana and Karma
as means for realising God. Their object was to reconcile the Vedas, the Upanishads and
the Gita with the Tamil Prabandha. They interpreted the Tamil Prabandha in terms of the
Upanishads and the Gita. Therefore, they were called by the name Ubhaya-Vedantins.
Ramanuja accepts the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Tamil works of the Alvars also as the
source of authority for his philosophy. Therefore, his system is known as Ubhaya-Vedanta.
Natha Muni raised the Prabandha to the level of the Vedas. Yamunacharya laid the
foundations on which Ramanuja, his successor, built his philosophy. Ramanuja wrote the
commentaries on the Brahma Sutras known as the Sri Bhashya. He wrote a commentary on the
Bhagavad-Gita also. He wrote also three other books—Vedanta Sara, Vedartha Sangraha
and Vedanta Dipa. These are the chief texts of the Visishtadvaita system of philosophy.
Ramanuja accepts perception, inference and scripture as valid sources of knowledge. The
Vedas and the Smritis are the sole and independent authority for the knowledge of Brahman.
He adopts the theories of Satkarya-Vada and Parinama-Vada, i.e., the doctrine of a real
effect proceeding from a cause.
Ramanuja’s Brahman—A Personal God With Attributes
According to Ramanuja, whatever is, is Brahman; but, Brahman is not of a homogeneous
nature. It contains within Itself elements of plurality on account of which It truly
manifests Itself in a diversified world. Ramanuja’s Brahman is essentially a Personal
God, the all-powerful and all-wise Ruler of a real world, permeated and animated by His
spirit. There is thus no room for the distinction between Param Nirguna and an Aparam
Saguna Brahman, between Brahman and Isvara. Ramanuja’s Brahman is Savisesha Brahman,
i.e., Brahman with attributes.
Ramanuja’s Brahman is not the Impersonal Absolute, but He is a Personal God, with
the qualities of omnipotence, omniscience and infinite love. God is Saguna. When the Vedic
texts declare that He is Nirguna, it means that there are no base or lower qualities such
as sorrow, pain, mortality, change and old age in Him.
The Lord is interpenetrating everything. He is the essence of the soul. He is the
Antaryamin or the Inner Ruler. He is one with the soul. He is all-pervading (Vibhu). He is
the Supreme Being. He is full of auspicious attributes. He is of the nature of Satya
(Truth), Jnana (Intelligence) and Ananda (Bliss). Matter and soul depend on Him. He is the
Adhara or support for this world and all souls. God is the Governor or Controller (Niyanta
or Seshin) of the world. Jiva or soul is Niyama or Sesha (one who is being controlled).
The Lord is immanent. He is also transcendent. He is unchanging. The entire universe is
latent in Him during Pralaya. The world is projected during creation, but this does not
touch His essence. Ramanuja’s Brahman has internal difference (Svagata Bheda). It is
a synthetic whole, with souls and matter as Its modes (Chit-Achit-Visishta). Para, Vyuha,
Vibhava, Archa and Antaryamin, i.e., the transcendent, the group, the incarnation, the
image and the immanent are the five forms of the Lord.
Ramanuja identifies God with Narayana who dwells in Vaikuntha with His Sakti or
consort, Lakshmi. Lakshmi is the Goddess of Prosperity. She is the Divine Mother. She
pleads with Her husband on behalf of man. She introduces the devotee to Her Lord and
obtains for him salvation. Lakshmi occupies a pre-eminent place in Vaishnavism.
The World—A Real Part Of Brahman’s Nature
The world, with its variety of material forms of existence and individual souls, is not
an unreal Maya, but a real part of Brahman’s nature. It is the body of the Lord.
Matter is real. It is Achit or non-conscious substance. It undergoes a real Parinama or
evolution. Matter exists in a subtle state as the Prakara of God during Pralaya. Hence it
is eternal, but ever dependent. It is controlled by the will of God. It is neither good
nor bad. It becomes a source of pleasure or of pain according to the nature of the Karma
of souls. It forms the object of experience for the souls.
Prakriti has three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas and Tamas; but, Suddha-Tattva has only Sattva.
It is pure matter. Suddha-Tattva is the substance which constitutes the body of God and is
called His Nitya-Vibhuti. The manifested world is His Lila-Vibhuti.
The Soul—A Distinct Individual Entity
The soul is a higher Prakara of God than matter, because it is a conscious entity. It
is of the essence of God. According to Ramanuja, God, soul and Nature are three eternal
entities. The soul is self-conscious, unchanging, partless and atomic (Anu). The souls are
infinite in number. The individual soul of Ramanuja is really individual. It is absolutely
real and eternally distinct from God. It has indeed, sprung from Brahman, and is never
outside Brahman; nevertheless, it enjoys a separate personal existence and will remain a
personality forever.
Three Classes of Souls
According to Ramanuja, there are three classes of souls, viz., Nitya (eternal), Mukta
(free) and Baddha (bound). The eternal souls have never been in bondage. They are
eternally free. They live with God in Vaikuntha. The freed souls were once subject to
Samsara, but have attained salvation now and live with God. The bound souls are caught up
in the meshes of Samsara and are striving to be released. They wander from life to life
till they are redeemed.
Man or the individual soul is a particle of which God is the whole. The individual soul
is like a spark of that mass of fire. The whole pomegranate fruit represents the Brahman
of Ramanuja, each seed corresponding to the individual soul.
The Evolution Of The Soul And Its Final Emancipation
When the individual soul is immersed in worldliness or Samsara, its knowledge is
contracted. It gets its body according to its past Karma, and goes from birth to death and
from death to birth, till it attains Moksha or the final emancipation. When it attains
Moksha, its knowledge expands. It knows everything. “Every action that contracts the
heart of the soul is bad, and every action that expands the heart of the soul is
good”—this is the statement of Ramanuja. The soul is marching on in this
Samsara, expanding or contracting through its good and evil actions, till it attains the
final emancipation through the grace of Lord Narayana. The grace descends on those souls
who are pure and struggling for the divine grace.
Emancipation or Passing into Paradise
According to Ramanuja, Moksha means the soul’s passing from the troubles of
mundane life into a kind of heaven or paradise (Vaikuntha) where it will remain forever in
undisturbed personal bliss in the presence of God. The liberated soul attains to the
nature of God. It never becomes identical with Him. It lives in fellowship with the Lord,
either serving Him or meditating on Him. It never loses its individuality. There is no
such thing as Jivanmukti, according to Ramanuja. Salvation comes when the soul leaves the
body.
Bhakti—The Means to Emancipation
The final emancipation can be obtained only through Bhakti and the grace of the Lord.
The grace of the Lord comes through devotion and Prapatti or absolute self-surrender.
Karma and Jnana are only means to Bhakti.
The Dvaita Philosophy Of Sri Madhvacharya
Introduction
Sri Madhvacharya evolved a dualistic system of philosophy out of the Prasthana-Traya,
viz., the Upanishads, the Bhagavad-Gita and the Brahma Sutras. It is an unqualified
dualism. Madhva’s Vaishnavism is called Sad-Vaishnavism, in order to distinguish it
from the Sri Vaishnavism of Ramanujacharya.
Madhva makes an absolute distinction between God, and animate and inanimate objects.
God is the only independent Reality. The animate and inanimate objects are dependent
realities. Madhva’s Vedanta is the doctrine of absolute differences. It is an
Atyanta-Bheda-Darsana. He insists on five great distinctions (Pancha-Bheda), viz., (i) the
distinction between God and the individual soul, (ii) the distinction between God and
matter, (iii) the distinction between the individual soul and matter, (iv) the distinction
between one soul and another and (v) the distinction between one material thing and
another. Madhva’s philosophy is a philosophy of distinction. Every follower of the
Madhva school should have a firm belief in this fivefold distinction, known as the
Pancha-Bheda.
You can clearly grasp Sri Madhvacharya’s philosophy if you study his commentary on
the Brahma Sutras and Anu-Vyakhyana, his commentaries on the Upanishads and the
Bhagavad-Gita, and his glosses on the Mahabharata (Bharata-tatparya-nirnaya) and on the
Bhagavata Purana.
Madhva’s philosophy has many points in common with those of Ramanuja. In
Madhva’s system of philosophy, Hari or Vishnu is the Supreme Being. The world is
real. Difference is true. All the Jivas are dependent on Hari, the Lord. There are grades
of superiority and inferiority among the individual souls. Liberation is the individual
soul’s enjoyment of its innate bliss. This is Moksha or the final emancipation.
Bhakti, or devotion, without faults, is the means of attaining Moksha. Perception,
inference and the scriptures are the three Pramanas, or ways of knowledge. Hari is
knowable only through the Vedas. Worship of Lord Krishna as taught in the Bhagavata Purana
is the centre of his religion. This is the quintessence of Madhva’s teachings.
The Categories
According to Madhva, Padartha or objective reality is of two kinds—independent
(Svatantra) and dependent (Paratantra). God, the Supreme Being, is the only independent
Reality. The soul and the world are dependent realities. God rules them. The dependent
beings are of two varieties—positive and negative. Conscious souls (Chetana), and
unconscious entities like matter and time (Achetana), are the two varieties of the
positive. Unconscious entities are either eternal like the Vedas, or eternal and
non-eternal like Prakriti, time and space or non-eternal like the products of Prakriti.
The Supreme Being And His Consort
The Supreme Being is Vishnu or Narayana. He is the personal first cause. He is
the Intelligent Governor of the world. He lives in Vaikuntha along with Lakshmi, His
consort. He and His consort Lakshmi are real. Brahma and Vayu are two of His sons. One can
know His nature through a study of the Vedas. He manifests Himself through various Vyuhas
or Group-forms, and through Avataras. He is present in the sacred images. He is also the
Antaryamin or the Inner Controller of all souls. He creates, maintains and destroys the
world.
God is free from Doshas or faults. He is endowed with all auspicious qualities. He is
omnipresent or all-pervading and independent. He is beyond time and space. He is greater
than Lakshmi. There is no other who is greater than Lakshmi. She is the foremost of the
dependents. Lakshmi is the Lord’s Sakti or energy. She is the personification of His
power or creative energy. Lakshmi can put on various forms without a material body. She is
co-eternal with Vishnu and all-pervading. She beholds the glory of Her Lord through
eternity. She is Nitya-Mukta, i.e., eternally free from Samsara. She is not affected by
sorrow and pain. She is intelligent.
Prakriti—The Material Cause Of The World
God is the efficient—but not the material—cause of the world, because
Prakriti which is the world-stuff is different from Him. Prakriti is the material cause of
the world. It evolves into the visible world. All the objects, bodies, and organs of the
souls are made out of Prakriti. God energises Prakriti through Lakshmi. Then there is
creation.
The three aspects of Prakriti are presided over by the three Powers: Lakshmi, Bhu and
Durga. Avidya is a form of Prakriti. It obscures the spiritual powers of the individual
soul. It forms a veil which hides the Supreme from the vision of the individual soul.
Mahat, Ahankara (egoism), Buddhi, mind, the ten senses, the five sense-objects, and the
five great elements are the modifications of Prakriti. These exist in the primordial
Prakriti in subtle forms before their evolution.
The World—A Reality Distinct From God
According to Madhva, the world is not an illusion. It is not also a transformation of
God, as curd is of milk. Madhva does not admit that the world is the body of God. The
distinction between God and the world is absolute and unqualified. Hence the system of
Madhva is called Dvaita or unqualified dualism.
The Individual Soul—A Distinct Entity
Plurality of Souls
There is plurality of Jivas. They are all of atomic size. The entire universe is filled
with Jivas or individual souls. Every atom of space is filled up with Jivas. Madhva says
in his ‘Tattvanirnaya’: “Infinite are the souls dwelling in an atom of
space.”
No two Jivas are alike in character. They are essentially different from one another.
There are different grades amongst them even in their enjoyment of bliss after salvation.
A Real Distinction Between Jiva And Brahman
The Jivas are different from God, and from matter. Madhva regards the distinction
between Brahman and Jiva as real.
Though the Jiva is limited in size, it pervades the body owing to its quality of
intelligence. The Jivas are active agents, but they depend on the guidance of the Lord.
The Lord impels the Jivas to action in accordance with their previous conduct. They are
eternal, and by nature, blissful. But, the connection with material bodies due to their
past Karma makes them suffer pain and undergo transmigration. So long as they are not
freed from their impurities, they wander about in the Samsara. They pass from birth to
death, and from death to birth. When their impurities are removed, they attain salvation.
The natural bliss of the soul becomes manifest at the time of Moksha or salvation.
Salvation Does Not Entitle the Soul to Equality With God
The soul does not attain equality with God. It is entitled only to serve Him.
Even in heaven, there are essential differences among the Jivas. The classes of souls
in the realm of bliss are various. There are different grades also. The liberated souls
are not all equal; but, there is no discord among them, because they all know Brahman and
have no faults.
Classification of Souls
Madhva accepts Ramanuja’s classification of the souls into Nitya or eternal (like
Lakshmi), Mukta or liberated (the gods, men, Rishis, sages and fathers), and Baddha or
bound ones. The third group consists of two classes: (i) those who are eligible for Moksha
(Mukti-yogya) and (ii) those who are not so eligible. Of those who are not eligible for
salvation, there are two classes again: (a) those who are bound to the cycle of Samsara
forever (Nitya-samsarins) and (b) those whose destiny is hell, the region of blinding
darkness (Tamo-yogya).
Some are pre-ordained for the final emancipation by their inherent aptitude. Some
others are eternally destined either to wander in Samsara without end, or to go to the
world of darkness. The Sattvika souls go to heaven, the Rajasa souls revolve in Samsara
and the Tamasa souls fall into hell.
Bhakti—The Means To Salvation
Bhakti is the means to salvation. Souls attain salvation through the grace of God. That
grace comes on the devotee only through the mediator Vayu, the son of Vishnu. God cannot
be approached directly. Vayu is the mediator. The grace of the Lord is in proportion to
the intensity of devotion.
Worship of God is the indispensable preliminary condition for obtaining the grace of
God. The soul is saved by the knowledge that it is dependent on God and is under His
control. Correct knowledge results in the love of God. Bhakti is the result of knowledge
of the greatness of God.
Ankana, Namakarana, Bhajana and Smarana
The worship of Vishnu consists in: (i) Ankana, marking the body with His symbols, (ii)
Namakarana, giving the Names of the Lord to children, (iii) Bhajana, singing His glories,
and (iv) Smarana, constant practice of remembrance of God. Madhva says: “Form a
strong habit of remembering God. Then only it will be easy for you to remember Him at the
moment of death.” He pointed out that when the Lord incarnated, no Prakrita Deha or
material body was put on by Him. Madhva has prescribed a rigorous kind of fasting to his
followers.
Practice of Sadhana
Good moral life is a preliminary for Moksha. The aspirant should equip himself with the
study of Vedas, control of the senses, dispassion and perfect self-surrender, if he wants
to have vision of the Lord. Renunciation, devotion and direct cognition of the Lord
through meditation, lead to the attainment of salvation. The devotee attains direct
intuitive realisation of God through meditation and divine grace. Then he is freed from
the round of births and deaths.
These are some of the important teachings of Sri Madhvacharya, the renowned exponent of
the dualistic school of philosophy.
The Dvaitadvaita Philosophy Of Sri Nimbarka
Introduction
This is also known by the name Bhedabheda School of Philosophy or dualistic monism.
This system was evolved by Sri Nimbarkacharya. Nimbarka was a Telugu Brahmin of the
Vaishnava faith. He lived some time after Ramanuja and prior to Madhva, about the eleventh
century A.D. He is regarded as the incarnation of the Sun.
He wrote a short commentary on the Brahma Sutras called Vedanta-Parijata-Saurabha, as
well as Dasasloki. His commentary develops the theory of the transformation (Parinama) of
Brahman.
Nimbarka’s view was largely influenced by the teachings of Bhaskara who flourished
in the first half of the ninth century and who interpreted the Vedanta system from the
viewpoint of Dvaitadvaita or dualistic non-dualism. This doctrine was not a new discovery
of Bhaskara. It was upheld by the ancient teacher Audulomi to which Sri Vyasa himself
refers in his Vedanta Sutras.
God, Soul And World
Identity in Difference
Nimbarka holds that the relation of God to the soul and the world is one of identity in
difference. The soul and the world are different from God, because they are endowed with
qualities different from those of God. At the same time, they are not different from God,
because God is omnipresent and they depend entirely on Him.
Nimbarka’s philosophy admits Brahman as the Supreme Reality without a second. The
world and the Jivas are only partial manifestations of His Power (Sakti).
Jiva and Brahman are self-conscious. Jiva is limited. Brahman is infinite. Brahman is
independent Reality. Jiva and Prakriti are dependent realities. Jiva is the enjoyer
(Bhokta). The world is the enjoyed (Bhogya). Brahman is the Supreme Controller (Niyanta).
God, Jiva and the world are not absolutely distinct. If the Supreme Being is absolutely
distinct from the individual soul and the world, it cannot be omnipresent. It will be as
limited as the individual soul or the world. It cannot, then, be regarded as their
Governor. Nimbarka says that both difference and non-difference are real. The soul and the
world are different from Brahman, as they are endowed with natures and qualities different
from those of Brahman. They are not different, as they cannot exist by themselves and as
they depend absolutely on Brahman. Such a relation exists between the sun and its rays.
the fire and its sparks. The souls and matter are distinct from God, but they are closely
connected with Him—as waves with water, or coils of a rope with the rope itself. They
are both distinct and non-distinct from Brahman.
The Supreme Being And Its Characteristics
In this school, Brahman is regarded as both the efficient and the material cause of the
world. Brahman is both Nirguna and Saguna, as It is not exhausted in the creation but also
transcends it.
The Four Forms of the Ultimate Reality
The Ultimate Reality exists in four forms. In Its primary form, It is the
unconditioned, immutable, Supreme Brahman. In Its second form, It is Isvara, the Lord of
the Universe. In the third form, It is called Jiva or the individual soul. In Its fourth
form, It is manifested as the universe of names and forms. The phenomenal universe is a
part of Brahman. It has no existence separate from, and independent of Brahman. The
relation between the world and Brahman is also one of Bhedabheda. The universe is not
different from Brahman.
Krishna—The Supreme Being
The Supreme Being is absolutely free from all defects. He is full of all auspicious
qualities. He has a divine body. He is full of beauty, love, sweetness and charm.
Nimbarka identifies the Supreme Brahman with Krishna. He is endowed with all auspicious
qualities. He is free from egoism, ignorance, passion and attachment. He has the four
forms (Vyuhas), viz., Vasudeva, Sankarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha. He also manifests
Himself as the Avataras (incarnations).
In Nimbarka, Krishna and Radha take the places of Narayana and Lakshmi. Radha is not
simply the chief of the Gopis, but is the eternal Consort of Lord Krishna.
How Brahman Is Both the Material and the Efficient Cause of the
World
Brahman is the material and the efficient cause of the universe. His powers of Chit and
Achit in their subtle forms manifest themselves as the universe. Hence He is the material
cause. He causes the union of the individual souls with their respective Karmas and their
fruits. He provides them the proper instruments for their experience. Hence He is the
efficient cause.
Brahman does not want raw materials in order to create the universe. Also, He does not
need hands or any other instruments. He is omnipotent. He simply wills and the whole world
comes into being. His Satsankalpa objectifies or materialises as this universe. Just as a
spider spins a cobweb out of itself, so also Brahman has evolved the universe out of
Himself. This is the declaration of the Upanishads. In thus evolving the universe, Brahman
is both its material and the efficient cause. As Brahman is all-powerful, it is perfectly
within His power to be so evolved, and at the same time, to remain beyond such evolution.
This is supported by the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras. Brahman has transformed Himself
into this world, without His noumenal aspect being affected. This is due to the
inscrutable creative power inherent in the nature of Brahman.
Relation Between The Individual Soul And The Supreme Soul
Formal Difference and Essential Identity
The individual soul is a part of the Supreme Soul. It is also identical with,
or the same as, the Supreme Soul. Just as a wave is both different from the ocean
(being only a part of the ocean), and identical with it (both being water), so also is the
individual soul both different from (being a part of the Supreme Soul), and identical with
(both being of the nature of Chaitanya or Consciousness), the Supreme Soul. The relation
between the individual soul or Jiva and the Supreme Soul or Brahman is one of formal
difference and essential identity. There is no difference between Jiva and Brahman in
kind. The difference is only in degree.
The Jiva is different from Brahman with reference to the phenomenal aspect or the
body-idea. It is identical with, or the same as, Brahman with reference to the noumenal
aspect as the indivisible whole. This is what is called Bhedabheda.
A strong wind perturbs the sea and a wave is formed. The wave is different from the
ocean, though it is a part of it. The wind passes away and the wave subsides. Now it
cannot be distinguished from the sea. Even so, the mind is agitated by desires and
cravings. It runs towards the objects along with the senses and becomes conscious of a
distinctive individuality. The ego or the finite self beholds the relative world with its
phenomena, and gets experiences. When the mind becomes calm and serene by eradication of
desires, it ceases to function and all the Vrittis or waves subside. The phenomenal world
vanishes and the finite self realises the Infinite Self or Brahman.
The Jiva And Its Attributes
Souls are infinite in number and are atomic in size. The Jiva is minute (Anu). It is of
the form of knowledge (Jnanasvarupa), though not in the sense of Sankara. The Jiva is
knowledge and it is the possessor of knowledge also, just as the sun is light and the
source of light also. The relation of the soul to its attribute is like that of the
Dharmin (the qualified) to the Dharma (the attribute). It is one of difference and
non-difference (Bhedabheda).
Though the Jiva is atomic in size, it experiences the pleasures and pains throughout
the body owing to its omnipresent quality of knowledge. It is everlasting. It continues to
exist in deep sleep and the final state of emancipation. In Pralaya or dissolution, the
individual souls and the world merge in the Lord in subtle form. Births and deaths concern
the body, but not the Self.
The individual soul is the agent of activity (Karta). It has no independent knowledge
or activity. The individual souls and the world are not self-sufficient. They are guided
by the Lord. They are all sustained and governed by God. Each soul is a ray of Brahman
individualised. Ananda or bliss belongs to the individual soul in all its states.
Two Classes of Jivas
Jivas are of two classes: (i) Jivas who have knowledge of the all-pervading indwelling
spirit and who have realised that the appearances are non-separate from Brahman. They are
called liberated souls (Mukta). They are free from ignorance. (ii) Jivas who only behold
the appearances, but have no knowledge of the all-pervading indwelling spirit, the support
of these names and forms. They are called bound souls (Baddha).
The World—A True Manifestation Of Brahman
The world is not an illusion for Nimbarka, as it is a manifestation (Parinama) of what
is contained subtly in God.
The world is not unreal or illusory, but is a true manifestation or Parinama of
Brahman. It may, however, be said to be unreal only in the sense that the present state of
its existence is not self-sufficient and it has no separate existence from Brahman. The
world is identical with as well as different from Brahman, just as a wave or bubble is the
same as, and at the same time different from, water.
There are three principal Tattvas or principles: (i) Aprakriti, which is not derived
from the primordial Prakriti, which is the stuff of the divine body of the Lord (which is
similar to the Suddha-Sattva of Ramanuja), and which is the basis of the Nitya-Vibhuti
(eternal glory) of Isvara; (ii) Prakriti with its three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas;
and (iii) Kala or time. These three Tattvas or principles are also eternal like the
individual souls.
According to Nimbarka, the Sakti of Brahman is the material cause of the world. The
changes of Sakti do not affect the integrity of Brahman. The ‘Body of Brahman’
of Ramanuja is the ‘Sakti’ of Nimbarka.
Salvation
Avidya is beginningless. The purity of the individual soul is obscured by its Karma
which is the result of Avidya. This Avidya can be put an end to by the grace of the Lord.
True Devotion and Real Knowledge Lead to Release
Prapatti or complete surrender to God is the way to release. God showers His grace on
His devotees who make complete self-surrender. The grace of God lifts up the devotees to
have Brahma-Sakshatkara. The Lord generates devotion in them which results in
God-realisation.
Bhakti involves a knowledge of Brahman, of the nature of the Jiva, of the fruit of the
Lord’s grace or Mukti, and of the nature of the impediments to God-realisation such
as the wrong identification of the soul with the body, the senses and the mind.
Salvation is attained by real knowledge (Jnana) and true devotion (Bhakti). Real
knowledge reveals the true nature of the all-pervading Brahman. True devotion leads to
total self-surrender to the Lord. The individual soul retains its individuality with
reference to divine enjoyment (Bhoga-samyatvam), but its will is subservient to that of
Brahman. The individuality of the soul is not dissolved even in the state of Moksha or the
final emancipation. Even in the state of release, the individual soul is different from,
as well as identical with, Brahman. This is identity with difference, Bheda-abheda.
Salvation—A State of Full Awareness of Identity With the Lord
Brahman is revealed to the liberated soul in Its pristine glory, but not in the form of
a deity. The soul realises itself now as an inseparable part of Brahman. It no longer
feels that it is a separate or distinct individual, as it felt in bondage. It is released
from its previous state of bondage. It abides now in the glory of its own true Self which
is Brahman Itself. It is in full awareness or consciousness of being one with the Lord. It
will not return to the world. It is freed from the round of births and deaths. As it is in
union with Brahman, it attains the same status as that of Brahman, but it has no power
over creation, preservation and dissolution of the world.
The Suddhadvaita Philosophy Of Sri Vallabha
Introduction
The philosophy of Sri Vallabhacharya is Suddha-Advaita or pure monism, because he does
not admit Maya like Sankara, and believes that the whole world of matter and souls is real
and is only a subtle form of God. Those who bring Maya for the explanation of the world
are not pure Advaitins, because they admit a second to Brahman. Vallabha holds that
Brahman can create the world without any connection with such a principle as Maya, but
Sankara traces the universe to Brahman through the power of Maya. Hence the philosophy of
Vallabha is called pure monism or Suddhadvaita. Vallabha expounded that system in the
Anu-Bhashya, his commentary on the Brahma Sutras. He called it Suddha-Advaita or pure
monism as against Sankara’s Kevala Advaita and Ramanuja’s Visishta-Advaita.
Vallabha was a Telugu Brahmin of South India. He migrated to the north and developed the
views of Vishnuswamin who belonged to the thirteenth century. His system of thought is
known by the name Brahma-Vada.
Vallabha says that the entire universe is real and is subtly Brahman. The individual
souls and the world are, in essence, one with Brahman. Jiva, Kala (time) and Prakriti or
Maya are eternal existences, but they have no separate existence apart from Brahman.
Vallabha was a great Sanskrit scholar. He settled down first at Mathura and then at
Varanasi. He preached with great zeal the Vaishnava cult and philosophy. He was the
founder of the great Vaishnava Mutts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. His followers are found in
great numbers in Nathdwara.
Important Works of Vallabha
Vallabha accepts the authority not only of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad-Gita and the
Brahma Sutras, but also of the Bhagavata Purana. The important works of Vallabha are
Vyasa-Sutra Bhashya (Anu-Bhashya), Jaimini Sutra Bhashya, Bhagavata-Tika Subodhini,
Pushti-Pravaha-Maryada and Siddhanta-Rahasya. All these books are in Sanskrit. He has
written many books in Braj Bhasha also. The scriptures are the final authority for
Vallabha.
Stress on Worship and Grace
Vallabha’s religion is a religion addressed to the worship of Vishnu in the form
of Krishna. It was derived chiefly, like the system of Chaitanya, from the Vaishnava
philosophy propounded by Ramanuja. It is centred round the conception of a personal and
beneficent God who is Sat-Chit-Ananda. Lord Krishna is the highest Brahman. His body
consists of Sat-Chit-Ananda. He is called Purushottama.
Vallabha’s followers worship Bala-Krishna (Krishna as a lad). They have
Vatsalya-Bhava (the attitude which regards God as a child). Vallabha lays great stress on
Pushti (grace) and Bhakti (devotion). Maha-Pushti is the highest grace or Anugraha which
helps the aspirants to attain God-realisation.
God—The Only Being
According to Vallabha, God is the Absolute or the Purushottama. He is perfect. He is
Sat-Chit-Ananda. He is infinite, eternal, omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent. He has
all the auspicious qualities also. The Sruti texts which say that He has no attributes,
mean only that He has not the ordinary qualities.
God is real. There is no other reality besides Him. He is the only Being.
He is the source for this universe and all souls. He is the first cause and the only
cause. God is the material as well as the efficient cause of the universe. He creates the
world by the mere force of His Will. Brahman manifests Himself, of His own Will, as the
universe and the individual souls, but He does not undergo any change in His essential
nature. Things come out of the Akshara (Sat-Chit-Ananda), like sparks from fire. Brahman
is the Creator of the world. He is also the world itself.
God is personified as Krishna, when He possesses the qualities of wisdom and action. He
appears in various forms to please His devotees.
The World Of Nature And The World Of False Relations
Creation is manifestation of Brahman. The universe is the effect of Brahman. The
universe is as eternal and real as Brahman Himself. The inanimate universe is filled with
Brahman. The world is not an illusory appearance. It is not different from Brahman in
essence.
Jagat is the world of Nature. It is not illusory. It is real. It is God Himself in one
form. But, the Samsara or temporal involvement is illusory. This is created by the soul
around its ‘I-ness’ and ‘mine-ness’. The separation from God on
account of egoism makes the soul forget its original, true, divine nature. Samsara is a
product of the soul’s imagination and action which play round its ‘I-ness’
and ‘mine-ness’. On account of its selfishness, it puts itself in wrong
relations with other souls and with the objective universe. It creates a web of its own
and gets itself entangled in it. This is an illusion, because the web has no reality. This
Samsara, the world of false relations created by the soul, is alone Maya. Samsara or Maya
rises because the soul, which is not apart from God, tries to set itself up as an
independent reality or entity in its own right. The self which is something apart from God
is illusory. Its body is illusory and its world also is illusory. All this is Samsara. It
is very different from the world of Nature.
Jiva And Brahman
Analogy of the Spark and the Fire
The Jivas are not effects. They are Amsas or parts of God. They issue from Him
spontaneously as sparks from fire. Brahman is the whole. The Jiva or the individual soul
is part; but, there is no real difference between Brahman and the individual soul, because
the individual soul is of identical essence with Brahman.(According to Ramanuja, the
parts are really different from the whole.) The soul is one with Brahman. It is as
real and eternal as Brahman.
The individual soul is not Brahman screened by the veil of Avidya. It is itself
Brahman, with the attribute ‘bliss’ being obscured or suppressed. Ananda or
bliss is suppressed or obscured in the individual soul. Ananda and consciousness are
suppressed or obscured in matter or the inanimate world. When the soul attains bliss, and
the inanimate world attains both consciousness and bliss, the difference between Brahman
and these vanishes.
The soul is both a doer and an enjoyer. It is atomic in size, but it pervades the whole
body by its quality of intelligence, just as sandalwood pervades even the places where it
does not exist by its sweet fragrance and just as a lamp, though confined only to a part
of a room, illuminates the whole room.
Classification Of Souls
There are three kinds of souls: (i) The pure (Suddha) Jivas. The divine qualities
(Aisvarya) are not obscured in these souls by ignorance. (ii) The worldly Jivas
(Samsarin). These souls are caught in the net or clutches of Avidya or ignorance. They
experience births and deaths on account of their connection with gross and subtle bodies.
(iii) Mukta Jivas or liberated souls. These souls are freed from the bonds of Samsara
through Vidya or Knowledge. When the soul attains the final emancipation, it recovers its
suppressed qualities and becomes one with God or Brahman. The world appears as Brahman to
one who has realised the Truth or Brahman.
There is another classification of souls, viz., Pushti souls, Maryada souls and
Pravahika souls. All these are different from one another in their origin, nature and
final end. They all issue from God with their differences.
The Pushti souls are the highest, as they issue from the Ananda-Kaya or the bliss-body
of God. These souls are the Amsa (parts) of His body. God is the Amsi (the whole). These
are the souls of grace. They have the divine seed in them which bears fruit in the end.
They ultimately reach the goal through the grace of the Lord. They have communion and
fellowship with Lord Krishna. They develop Bhakti through the grace of the Lord. Bhakti is
the means and the end in itself.
The Maryada souls are generated from the Vak or the Word of God. They are governed by
law, not by grace. They perform their ritualistic duties, at first with selfish interests.
Later on, they develop Nishkama-Bhava (unselfish attitude) and do their ritualistic
routine without any self-interest. This purifies their mind. They reach the Akshara, which
is a kind of vestibule to the abode of God. Afterwards they attain the supreme abode of
God.
The Pravahika souls issue from the mind of God. They are the Samsaric Jivas. They are
souls neither of grace nor of law. They are in continuous motion (Pravaha).
These three kinds of souls have further sub-divisions and cross-divisions into
Pushti-Pushti, Pushti-Maryada, Pushti-Pravahika, Maryada-Maryada, Maryada-Pushti,
Maryada-Pravahika, Pravahika-Pravahika, Pravahika-Pushti and Pravahika-Maryada.
Pushti Marga Or The Way Of Grace
The way of life and salvation, preached by Vallabha is called Pushti Marga. The soul of
man has become weak and lean on account of sin. It is, therefore, in dire need of the
grace of God for its upliftment and emancipation. God’s grace gives Pushti
(nourishment) and Poshana (strength); and hence the name Pushti Marga or the Way of Grace.
The individual soul can attain the final emancipation only through the grace of God.
Bhakti is the chief means of salvation. Jnana is useful. Maha Pushti or the highest grace
removes great obstacles and helps in the attainment of God. The Bhakti generated by
special grace is known as Pushti Bhakti.
The Four Kinds of Bhakti
This Pushti-Bhakti is of four kinds: (i) Pravaha Pushti-Bhakti, (ii) Maryada
Pushti-Bhakti, (iii) Pushti Pushti-Bhakti and (iv) Suddha Pushti-Bhakti. Pravaha Bhakti is
the path of those who while leading the worldly life, perform works which will lead to the
attainment of God-realisation. Worldly life is compared to the flow of a river (Pravaha).
Maryada Bhakti is the path of those who are rendered fit to attain knowledge which is
useful for worship, through the grace of the Lord. They know all about the ways of God.
They depend upon their own efforts to obtain knowledge. In Pushti Bhakti, the devotees
lead a life of self-restraint. They hear discourses about the Lord. They do Kirtana and
sing His Name. They do Japa of Mantra.
Suddha Pushti-Bhakti or the Purest Type of Devotion
In Suddha Pushti-Bhakti, the devotees do Kirtana and sing the Lord’s Name. They
praise God. They develop a strong passion for doing these. This kind of devotion is
generated by the Lord Himself. The Lord’s grace descends on the devotees. Then they
develop a liking for God. This liking grows into Prema Bhakti (taste for God). The
devotees acquire knowledge about God. Then they get attachment to God (Asakti). Then they
develop a strong passion for attaining God. This is the ripe condition of love and Asakti.
It is called Vyasana. This strong passion, or Vyasana, leads to the attainment of the
highest bliss, the summum bonum or the end.
When love for Sri Krishna becomes intense, the devotee sees Lord Krishna everywhere.
Hence everything becomes an object of love for him. He identifies himself with everything.
The Gopis had this experience. They saw Krishna everywhere. They saw themselves also as
Krishna. This is Para Bhakti or supreme devotion which becomes akin to the knowledge or
Brahman-Jnana of the Vedantins or Jnanins. The inner and outer world is full of Krishna or
Purushottama for such devotees. The fruit of this devotion is admission to the eternal
sports or Lilas of Sri Krishna.
The supreme goal is not Mukti or emancipation. The highest goal is eternal service of
Lord Krishna and participation in His sports in the celestial Vrindavana. Those who have
developed Vyasana, or strong passion for God, reject with scorn the four kinds of Mukti.
The Maryada-Bhaktas attain Sayujya Mukti, i.e., they become one with Sri Krishna. The
Pushti-Bhaktas reject Mukti and take part in the sports or Lilas of Sri Krishna. They
choose with intense delight the eternal service of Sri Krishna. The Bhaktas assume the
forms of cows, birds, trees and rivers and enjoy the company of Sri Krishna, which bestows
infinite joy. These sports are similar to those which Sri Krishna did in Vraja and
Vrindavana. Some of the devotees become Gopas and Gopis and join the sports in the
celestial Vrindavana.
Different Kinds of Liberated Souls
The liberated souls are of different kinds. Some have freed themselves like Sanaka.
Some dwell in the city of God and attain salvation through the grace of the Lord. Some
others develop perfect love and become the associates of God.
The Achintya Bhedabheda Philosophy Of Sri Chaitanya
Introduction
Sri Chaitanya or Lord Gauranga may be regarded as the greatest Vaishnava teacher of the
North. He gave a new form to the Vaishnava faith. He was born in 1486 A.D., in Bengal.
Chaitanya had a very large heart. He accepted converts from Islam freely. His disciple
Haridas was a Muslim Fakir. Nityananda spread far and wide the Chaitanya movement. Rupa
and Sanatana who descended from a prince of Karnataka and settled in Bengal, and their
nephew Jiva Goswami, were great Sanskrit scholars and were really the fathers of the
Chaitanya movement. Jiva Goswami and Baladeva furnished the philosophical basis for the
school. The philosophical classics of the school are Jiva’s Satsandarbha, and his own
commentary on it, Sarva-Samvadini, and Baladeva’s Govindabhashya on the Brahma
Sutras. Baladeva’s Prameyaratnavali is also another popular book. Jiva and Baladeva
were greatly influenced by the views of Ramanuja and Madhva. They admit God, souls, Maya
or Prakriti, Suddha Sattva and Kala or time.
The world and souls depend on God, though they are separate and distinct from Him. They
are neither one with God nor different from Him. There is an incomprehensible
difference—non-difference (Achintya Bhedabheda).
Chaitanya insisted on the unity of Godhead which underlies the multitude of idols of
popular worship.
The Ultimate Reality
The Ultimate reality is Vishnu. He is the God of love and grace. He is one without a
second. He is Sat-Chit-Ananda. He is Nirguna in the sense that He is free from the
qualities of Maya. He is Saguna as He is endowed with the attributes of omnipotence and
omniscience. He is the material and the efficient cause of the world. He is the source,
support and end of this universe. He is the efficient cause through His higher energy
(Para-Sakti). He is the material cause through His other energies (Apara-Sakti and
Adya-Sakti).
Mysterious and Incomprehensible Saktis of the Lord
Just as the sun has its light and the fire its heat, so the supreme God, Krishna, has
naturally His energies or Saktis which are mysterious and incomprehensible. These Saktis
have no independent existence. They depend upon God. God and His powers are either
identical or different.
These energies are of three kinds, viz., Chit-Sakti, Jiva-Sakti and Maya-Sakti. They
are also called Antaranga, Tatastha and Bahiranga, respectively. Jiva-Sakti is called
Tatastha, because it occupies an intermediate place between Chit-Sakti and Maya-Sakti.
The Process of Creation
Chit-Sakti created Vaikuntha. There is only pure Sattva in Vaikuntha. Maya has no
access here. Kala (Time) cannot execute its destructive power.
The souls are created by the Tatastha Sakti or Jiva-Sakti of the Lord. The Lord’s
Svarupa-Sakti supports His Jiva-Sakti.
The Lord creates the universe from the great principle of Mahat. He manifests the Vedas
and communicates them to Brahma. The work of creating other stages of creation is given to
Brahma. The souls and matter are the manifestations of God’s energy according to Jiva
Goswami and Baladeva. Maya is set in vibration by the mere gazing of the Lord.
The Lord Who Appears in Different Forms
The Supreme Lord Krishna manifests Himself as Brahman to Jnanins; as Paramatman to
Yogins; and as Bhagavan full of all glories, all beauties, all sweetness and all
attributes, to Bhaktas. Lord Krishna is the Soul of all souls and the Lord of all that is.
A Bhakta only has full knowledge of the Supreme Personal God with all His divine
attributes. Krishna’s form is unique. He assumes endless forms.
Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Rama, Krishna, etc., are Lila-Avataras. There
are Gunavataras and Manvantaravataras. The four Sanakas, Narada, Prithu, Parasurama,
Brahma, Sesha in Vaikuntha and Ananta who supports the earth are the chief Avestavataras
of the major type who have direct power from God. In Sanaka, Jnana-Sakti; in Narada,
Bhakti-Sakti; in Brahma, creative Sakti; in Ananta, the earth-supporting Sakti; in Sesha,
God-serving Sakti; in Prithu, the power of preserving people; and in Parasurama, the power
of destroying the wicked prevailed.
Radha-Krishna
The Avataras are one with the Supreme. They are not parts like the individual souls.
God assumes infinite forms of which the chief is that of Krishna. Radha is the essence of
the delight-giving power of Lord Krishna (Hladini). The Lord is the ruler of all souls. He
is omnipresent or all-pervading.
The Jiva
The Jiva is of atomic size. He is the eternal servant of God. He bears the same
relation to God as the sun’s rays bear to the sun and as a spark bears to the mass of
fire from which it flits out. The ray, although it radiates from the sun and is part and
parcel of the sun, is not the sun. So also, the Jiva, who is partly similar to God in
respect of his spirituality or Chaitanya and partly dissimilar on account of his animal
nature and susceptibility to the influence of Maya, is not God Himself.
The soul is bound by the power of Maya. Maya makes him forget his real, essential,
divine nature. The Jiva, illumined and infatuated by Maya, can naturally have no knowledge
of Lord Krishna. Lord Krishna has, therefore, out of His infinite mercy, created the
Vedas; and reveals Himself to the Jive through the media of scriptures, Guru and
intuition. Then the Jiva is convinced that Lord Krishna is his Lord and saviour.
The Jiva can have God-realisation through spiritual love or Prema to Lord Krishna.
Bhakti overcomes the force of Karma. Bhakti is the way to the final emancipation. Through
Bhakti the soul attains to a status of equality with God, but he is never absorbed in Him.
He is freed from the round of births and deaths.
The Culture Of Bhakti
Chaitanya taught that God could be realised only by means of ardent and all-absorbing
love. He wrote to a royal minister who had asked if there was any path of salvation for a
man leading an active life: “As an immoral woman constantly thinks of her illicit
lover while living in the midst of her family, so do thou silently and ceaselessly
meditate on Hari while doing your worldly activities.”
According to Chaitanya, ardour is born from the culture of Bhakti and when ardour
deepens, it is called love (Prema).
From taste (Ruchi) comes strong inclination (Aasakti) which generates the sprout of
passion (Rati) for Krishna. When this emotion deepens, it becomes Prema. This is the
permanent form of Bhakti in Krishna.
When love grows, it is successively called Sneha, Pranaya, Anuraga, Bhava and
Mahabhava, just as we have successively cane-seed, sugar-cane juice, molasses, sugar and
fine sugar-candy.
When the permanent emotion (Bhava) is mingled with Rasa, it is changed into Vibhava,
Anubhava, Sattvika and Vyabhichari; just as curd, when being mixed with black sugar, black
pepper and camphor, becomes a thing of extreme deliciousness named Rasala. Vibhava is of
two kinds: (i) Alambana, which is kindled by Krishna, etc., and (ii) Uddipana, by the
notes of His flute, etc. Anubhava is stimulated by smile, dance and song. Stupor and other
sensations are included in Sattvika Anubhava. Vyabhichari is of thirty-three kinds, such
as delight, rapture, etc.
Rasa is of five kinds—Santa, Dasya, Sakhya, Vatsalya and Madhurya. In the Santa
Rasa, Rati advances to the stage of Prema and in the Dasya, to Raga. Sakhya and Vatsalya
attain to the limit of Anuraga.
Krishna-Prema—The Supreme Attainment
That devotee who has developed Prema always communes with Lord Krishna. No mundane
sorrow or affliction can perturb his mind. He has no attraction for earthly objects. He
has no fear. He never cares for material success. He intensely longs for union with Lord
Krishna.
Love of Krishna is the highest thing worth attaining. Bhakti is the means of
attachment. Krishna-prema is, indeed, the highest achievement of life. This Prema makes
the devotees serve Krishna in a selfless spirit and enjoy the Rasa or sweetness of the
Lord. Bhakti is the only means of attaining Krishna and is, therefore, spoken of as
Avidhaya or means. Just as wealth gives comforts, and with the enjoyment of comforts all
worldly miseries disappear of their own accord, so also, Bhakti generates Krishna-prema,
and with the enjoyment of Prema, the cycle of births and deaths comes to an end. Escape
from the effects of privations and the stoppage of rebirths are not, however, the fruits
of Prema. Beatitude or Moksha is Prema’s handmaid. Therefore, this
Krishna-prema is regarded as the supreme attainment.
Other Teachings Of Sri Chaitanya
Veneration for the preceptor is a fundamental feature of Sri Chaitanya’s
teachings. Study of the Vedas, the Bhagavata Purana, etc., is inculcated. Practice of
ethics and development of ethical virtues such as mercy towards all creatures, humility,
purity of heart, freedom from mundane desires, serenity and truthfulness are essential.
The distinctions of caste have to be ignored. Anyone can obtain the grace of the Lord.
The following qualities makes a Vaishnava. He is compassionate, truthful, saintly,
innocent, charitable, gentle, pure, spiteless, humble, serene, tender, friendly and
silent. He is a universal benefactor. He solely depends upon Lord Krishna. He is
desireless. He is abstemious in diet and self-controlled. He has mastery over the six
enemies. He honours others and does not care for honour from others.
Sankirtana—The Supreme Healer
The supreme healer in this iron age is Sankirtana of the Name. It is equivalent to the
Vedic sacrifice. The true sacrifice is rewarded with Krishna’s feet. Sankirtana
enables you to conquer sin and the world. It creates purity of soul and all kinds of
Bhakti. It is not restricted to a particular place or time. It works everywhere. It bears
the name of Sarva-sakti (omnipotence).
Hari’s Name should always be chanted by him who must be humbler than a blade of
grass (which is trodden upon); who is more patient, forbearing and charitable than a tree
(which does not cry out even when it is cut down and which does not beg for water even
when scorched to death, but on the contrary, offers its treasure to whosoever seeks it,
bears the sun and rain itself, but protects those who take shelter under it from rain and
sunshine); who, however worthy of esteem should, instead of claiming respect for himself,
give respect to all (from a sense of God’s immanency in all beings). He who thus
takes Krishna’s Name gets Divine Love (Prema).
CHAPTER 13
HINDU PHILOSOPHY—III
(SAIVA SIDDHANTA AND SAKTAISM)
The Saiva Siddhanta Philosophy
Introduction
In the books which treat of Saivism, there is a reference to four schools, viz., the
Nakulisapasupata, the Saiva, the Pratyabhijna and the Rasesvara.
Saiva Siddhanta is the philosophy of Southern Saivism. It owes its origin to no single
author. It is midway between Sankara’s Advaita and Ramanuja’s Visishtadvaita.
Its literature consists chiefly of: (i) the twenty-eight Saivite Agamas, (ii) the
collection of Saivite hymns known as Tirumurai, (Compiled by Nambi Andar Nambi, the
Tirumurai includes the Tirumantiram of Tirumular, the Tevaram of Appar, Sundarar and
Sambandhar, and the Tiruvachakam of Manikkavachagar.) (iii) the collection of the
lives of the Saivite saints, known as Periyapuranam, (iv) Meykandar’s
Sivajnanabodham, (v) Arulnandi’s Siva-jnanasiddhiar, and (vi) the works of Umapati.
Tirumular’s work ‘Tirumantiram’ is the foundation upon which the later
structure of Saiva Siddhanta philosophy was built.
The central doctrine of the Saiva Siddhanta philosophy is that Siva is the Supreme
Reality, and that the Jiva or the individual soul is of the same essence as Siva, but not
identical. Pati (God), Pasu (soul) and Pasa (the bonds), and the thirty-six Tattvas or
principles which constitute the world, are all real.
The Saiva Siddhanta system is the distilled essence of the Vedanta. It prevailed in
Southern India even before the Christian era. Tirunelveli and Madurai are the centres of
the Saiva Siddhanta school. Even now, Saivism is a very popular creed in South India. It
is a rival school of Vaishnavism.
Characteristics Of The Supreme Reality
The Supreme Reality is called Siva. He is infinite consciousness. He is eternal,
changeless, formless, independent, omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient, one without a
second, beginningless, causeless, taintless, self-existent, ever-free, ever-pure and
perfect. He is not limited by time. He is infinite bliss and infinite intelligence. He is
free from defects, the all-doer and the all-knower.
Lord Siva is the God of love. His grace is infinite. His love is infinite. He is the
saviour and Guru. He is engaged in freeing the souls from the thraldom of matter. He
assumes the form of a Guru out of His intense love for mankind. He wishes that all should
know Him and attain the blissful Siva-Pada. He watches the activities of the individual
souls and helps them in their onward march. He liberates the individual souls from their
fetters or bonds.
The Five Activities of the Lord
The five activities of the Lord (Pancha-Krityas) are: Srishti (creation), Sthiti
(preservation), Samhara (destruction), Tirobhava (veiling) and Anugraha (grace). These,
separately considered, are the activities of Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, Mahesvara and
Sadasiva.
Siva, Sakti And Maya
The Lord Siva pervades the whole world by His Sakti. He works through His Sakti. Sakti
is the conscious energy of Lord Siva. She is the very body of Lord Siva. The potter is the
first cause for the pot. The stick and the wheel are the instrumental causes. The clay is
the material cause of the pot. Similarly, Lord Siva is the first cause of the world. Sakti
is the instrumental cause. Maya is the material cause.
Sakti is not the material cause of the universe, because she is of the nature of
consciousness (Chaitanya). Siva is pure consciousness, but matter is pure unconsciousness.
Sakti is the intermediate link between the two.
Sakti is the reflex of Siva. It has no independent existence. Siva assumes this form
out of His great love for mankind. Siva wishes that all should know Him.
Evolution Of The Tattvas From Suddha-Maya
The world undergoes evolution for the benefit of the souls. The whole process of
creation is for the sake of the salvation of the souls. The world is real and eternal. The
world of matter and souls forms the body of the Lord.
The Saiva Siddhanta analyses the universe into thirty-six Tattvas or principles, as
against the twenty-five of the Sankhya. The thirty-six Tattvas arise from Maya, the
material cause of the world. Suddha-Maya is Maya in its primal state. From it arise the
five pure principles called Siva Tattva, Sakti Tattva, Sadasiva Tattva, Isvara Tattva and
Suddhavidya Tattva. Siva functions through these five pure principles.
Maya evolves into the subtle principles and then into the gross. Siva Tattva is the
basis of all consciousness and action. It is undifferentiated (Nishkala Suddha Maya). The
Sakti of Siva starts her activity. Then Siva becomes the experiencer. Then He is called
Sadasiva, known also by the name Sadakhya, who is not really separate from Siva. The
Suddha Maya becomes active. Then Siva, the experiencer, becomes the ruler. He is then
Isvara, who is not really separate from Sadasiva. Suddhavidya is the cause of true
knowledge.
The Bonds That Bind The Soul
Anava, Karma and Maya
Souls (Pasu) are by nature infinite, all-pervading, eternal and all-knowing like Lord
Siva (Pati). Yet they think that they are finite, limited and little-knowing, ignorant and
temporary. This is due to their bonds (Pasa), viz., Anava, Karma and Maya which are called
the three Malas or impurities. Anava is the impurity which makes the all-pervading Jiva
think itself to be atomic (Anu). It produces the erroneous notion of finiteness. The
second impurity or bond is Karma. The soul acts in certain ways on account of its
limitation and does good and evil actions. Karma brings about the conjunction of the soul
with its body. The results of the Karma have to be worked out in the world. There should
be worlds and bodies, in order to experience the fruits of actions and acquire knowledge.
These are provided by Maya, the third Mala or bond. Maya is the material cause of the
world. The soul gets experience and limited knowledge through Maya.
The soul learns, by long experience, that this Samsara is full of pains and is
transitory, and that he can attain eternal bliss and immortality only by attaining Sivatva
or the nature of Siva or God-realisation. He develops Vairagya (dispassion), and Viveka
(discrimination between the real and the unreal, the permanent and the impermanent).
Three Orders of Jivas
The Saiva Siddhantins divine Jivas or Pasus into three orders, viz., Vijnanakalas,
Pralayakalas and Sakalas. Vijnanakalas have only the Anava Mala (egoism). Maya and Karma
have been resolved. Pralayakalas are those who are free from Maya alone, in the stage of
Pralaya. Sakalas have all the Malas (defects), viz., Anava, Karma and Maya.
The Malas affect only the Jivas and not Siva. Those who are freed from the Malas or
impurities attain Sivatva or the nature of Siva. They are Siddhas or perfected beings.
The Way To The Attainment Of Sivatva Or God-Realisation
You must free yourself from the three bonds, if you want to attain salvation. You must
annihilate Maya which is the root of all sins. You must destroy all Karmas which produce
rebirth. You must remove the erroneous notion of a finite self.
The three bonds can be removed only through rigorous Tapas, proper discipline, the help
of a Guru, and above all, the grace of Lord Siva. Charya (observance), Kriya (rites) and
Yoga (Yama, Niyama, etc.) constitute the discipline. When the aspirant practises in right
earnest Charya, Kriya and Yoga, he obtains the grace of Lord Siva. Then the Lord instructs
the soul, reveals Himself and illumines him. Then the soul realises its nature as Siva
(Jnana).
Discipline and grace culminate in Jnana. Jnana is the supreme means of salvation or the
attainment of the final beatitude. Karma and other means are only subsidiary to it. They
are only auxiliaries.
The attainment of Sivatva or Siva-nature does not mean complete merging of the soul in
Siva. The liberated soul does not lose its individuality. It continues to exist as soul in
God. Sivatva is the realisation of an identity of essence in spite of difference. The soul
attains the nature of Siva or God, but it is not itself Siva or God.
The Sakti Yoga Philosophy
Introduction
In this system of Sakti Yoga philosophy, Siva is omnipresent, impersonal and inactive.
He is pure consciousness. Sakti is dynamic. Siva and Sakti are related as Prakasa and
Vimarsa. Sakti or Vimarsa is the power that is latent in the pure consciousness. Vimarsa
gives rise to the world of distinctions. Siva is Chit, Sakti is Chidrupini. Brahma, Vishnu
and Siva do their functions of creation, preservation and destruction in obedience to
Sakti. Sakti is endowed with Ichha (will), Jnana (knowledge) and Kriya (action). Siva and
Sakti are one. Sakti-Tattva and Siva-Tattva are inseparable. Siva is always with Sakti.
Siva-Tattva and Sakti-Tattva
The creative aspect of the Supreme Siva is called Siva-Tattva. Sakti-Tattva is the will
of Siva. It is the seed and womb of the entire world.
Siva has two aspects. In one aspect, He is the supreme, changeless One who is
Satchidananda. This is Para Samvit. Nishkala Siva is Nirguna Siva. He is not connected
with the creative Sakti. In the other aspect, He changes as the world. The cause of the
change is Siva-Tattva. Sakti-Tattva is the first dynamic aspect of Brahman. This
Siva-Tattva and Sakti-Tattva are inseparable.
Sakti—The Ruler of Maya
Maya or Prakriti is within the womb of Sakti. Maya is the matrix of the world. Maya is
potential in the state of dissolution. She is dynamic in creation. Maya evolves into
several material elements and other physical parts of all sentient creatures, under the
direction of Sakti.
There are thirty-six Tattvas or principles in the Sakti philosophy.
Sakti—The Active Aspect Of The Immanent God
The power or active aspect of the immanent God is Sakti. Siva or Brahman is the
unchanging consciousness. Sakti is His changing Power which appears as mind and matter.
Sakti is the embodiment of power. She runs this world-show. She maintains the sportive
play or Lila of the Lord. She is the supporter of the vast universe. She is the supreme
Power by which the world is upheld. She is the Universal Mother. She is Durga, Lakshmi,
Sarasvati, Kali, Chandi, Chamundi, Tripurasundari and Rajarajesvari. She is Lalita,
Kundalini and Parvati. There is no difference between God and His Sakti, just as there is
no difference between fire and its burning power.
Devi is Sakti of Lord Siva. She is Jada Sakti and Chit Sakti. Prakriti is Jada Sakti.
Suddha Maya is Chit Sakti. Nada, Bindu and the rest are only names for different aspects
of Sakti. Sakti is Prakriti, Maya, Mahamaya and Sri Vidya. Sakti is Brahman Itself. Sakti
manifested Herself to Lord Siva in the ten forms as the Dasa-Maha-Vidyas, viz., Kali,
Bagalamukhi, Chhinnamasta, Bhuvanesvari, Matangi, Shodasi, Dhumavati, Tripurasundari, Tara
and Bhairavi.
Sakti is Chidrupini. She is pure, blissful Consciousness. She is the Mother of Nature.
She is Nature Itself. She is Jagat-Janani, Creatrix of the world; Mahishasura-mardini,
destroyer of Mahishasura; Bhrantinasini, destroyer of illusion or Avidya; and
Daridryanasini, destroyer of poverty.
The world is a manifestation of Sakti. The countless universes are only dust of Divine
Mother’s holy feet. Her glory is ineffable. Her splendour is indescribable. Her
greatness is unfathomable. She showers Her grace on Her sincere devotees. She leads the
individual soul from Chakra to Chakra, from plane to plane, and unites him with Lord Siva
in the Sahasrara.
Manifestations Of The Divine Mother
The Supreme Lord is represented as Siva and His power is represented as His
consort—Sakti, Durga or Kali. Just as the husband and wife look after the well-being
of the family, so also Lord Siva and His Sakti are engaged in looking after the affairs of
this world.
Divine Mother is everywhere triple. She is endowed with the three Gunas, viz., Sattva,
Rajas and Tamas. She manifests Herself as Will (Ichha Sakti), Action (Kriya Sakti) and
Knowledge (Jnana Sakti). She is Brahma-Sakti (Sarasvati) in conjunction with Brahma,
Vishnu-Sakti (Lakshmi) in conjunction with Vishnu and Siva-Sakti (Gauri) in conjunction
with Siva. Hence She is called Tripurasundari.
Radha, Durga, Lakshmi, Sarasvati and Savitri are the five primary forms of Prakriti or
Devi. Durga destroyed Madhu and Kaitabha through Vishnu. As Mahalakshmi, She destroyed the
Asura Mahisha; and as Sarasvati, she destroyed Sumbha and Nisumbha with their companions
Dhumralochana, Chanda, Munda and Raktabija.
The Abode Of The Divine Mother
The abode of Tripurasundari, the Divine Mother, is called Sri-Nagara. This magnificent
abode known as Mani-Dvipa, is surrounded by twenty-five ramparts which represent the
twenty-five Tattvas. The resplendent Chintamani Palace is in the middle. The Divine Mother
sits in the Bindu-Pitha in Sri-Chakra in that wonderful palace. There is a similar abode
for Her in the body of man also.
The body is Sakti. The needs of the body are the needs of Sakti. When man enjoys, it is
Sakti who enjoys through him. She sees through his eyes, works through his hands and hears
through his ears. Body, mind, Prana, egoism, intellect, organs, and all functions are Her
manifestations.
The whole world is Her body. Mountains are Her bones. Rivers are Her veins. Ocean is
Her bladder. Sun and moon are Her eyes. Wind is Her breath. Agni is Her mouth.
The Indescribable Glory Of Devi
The Story of the Yaksha
In the Kenopanishad, it is said that the gods became puffed up with a victory over the
Asuras. They wrongly took the success to be the result of their own valour and powers. The
Lord wanted to teach them a lesson. He appeared before them in the form of a Yaksha—a
huge form, the beginning and end of which were not visible. The Devas wanted to find out
the identity of this form and sent Agni for this purpose. The Yaksha asked Agni:
“What is thy name and power?” Agni replied: “I am Agni, Jatavedas. I can
burn up the whole universe in a minute.” The Ya
